Showing 1–50 of 136 results for author: Roberts, T P

XMM-Newton multi-year campaign on NGC 55 ULX-1: Resolving the wind and its variability with RGS

Authors: C. Pinto, S. Caserta, F. Barra, Y. Xu, D. Barret, P. Kosec, N. La Palombara, A. Marino, F. Pintore, A. Riggio, T. P. Roberts, C. Salvaggio, L. Sidoli, R. Soria, D. J. Walton

Abstract: Winds are an important ingredient in the evolution of X-ray binary (XRB) systems, particularly those at high accretion rates such as ultra-luminous X-ray sources (ULXs), because they may regulate the accretion of matter onto the compact object. We aim at understanding the properties of ULX winds and their link with the source spectral and temporal behavior. We performed high-resolution X-ray spect… ▽ More Winds are an important ingredient in the evolution of X-ray binary (XRB) systems, particularly those at high accretion rates such as ultra-luminous X-ray sources (ULXs), because they may regulate the accretion of matter onto the compact object. We aim at understanding the properties of ULX winds and their link with the source spectral and temporal behavior. We performed high-resolution X-ray spectroscopy of the variable source NGC 55 ULX-1 to resolve emission and absorption lines as observed with XMM-Newton at different epochs. Optically-thin plasma models are used to characterise the wind. We confirmed and thoroughly strengthened previous evidence of outflows in NGC 55 ULX-1. The presence of radiative recombination signatures and the ratios between the fluxes of the emission lines favours photoionisation balance and low-to-moderate densities, which confirm that the lines originate from classical XRB disc winds. An in-depth parameter space exploration shows line emission from a slowly moving, cool, and variable plasma perhaps associated with a thermal wind. Mildly-relativistic Doppler shifts (about -0.15c) associated with the absorption lines confirm, at higher confidence, the presence of powerful, radiatively-driven, winds. The comparison between results obtained at different epochs revealed that the wind responds to the variability of the underlying continuum and these variations may be used to understand the actual accretion regime and the nature of the source. △ Less

Submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025.

Comments: Accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics

Type I X-ray Burst Emission Reflected into the Eclipses of EXO 0748-676

Authors: Amy H. Knight, Jakob van den Eijnden, Adam Ingram, James H. Matthews, Sara E. Motta, Matthew Middleton, Giulio C. Mancuso, Douglas J. K. Buisson, Diego Altamirano, Rob Fender, Timothy P. Roberts

Abstract: The neutron star X-ray binary, EXO 0748--676, was observed regularly by the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (RXTE) and XMM-Newton during its first detected outburst (1985 - 2008). These observations captured hundreds of asymmetric, energy-dependent X-ray eclipses, influenced by the ongoing ablation of the companion star and numerous Type I thermonuclear X-ray bursts. Here, we present the light curves… ▽ More The neutron star X-ray binary, EXO 0748--676, was observed regularly by the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (RXTE) and XMM-Newton during its first detected outburst (1985 - 2008). These observations captured hundreds of asymmetric, energy-dependent X-ray eclipses, influenced by the ongoing ablation of the companion star and numerous Type I thermonuclear X-ray bursts. Here, we present the light curves of 22 Type I X-ray bursts observed by RXTE that coincide, fully or partially, with an X-ray eclipse. We identify nine instances where the burst occurs entirely within totality, seven bursts split across an egress, and six cases interrupted by an ingress. All in-eclipse bursts and split bursts occurred while the source was in the hard spectral state. We establish that we are not observing direct burst emission during eclipses since the companion star and the ablated outflow entirely obscure our view of the X-ray emitting region. We determine that the reflected flux from the outer accretion disc, even if maximally flared, is insufficient to explain all observations of in-eclipse X-ray bursts and instead explore scenarios whereby the emission arising from the X-ray bursts is scattered, either by a burst-induced rise in $N_{\rm{H}}$ that provides extra material, an accretion disc wind or the ablated outflow into our line of sight. However, the rarity of a burst and eclipse overlap makes it challenging to determine their origin. △ Less

Submitted 11 March, 2025; v1 submitted 27 January, 2025; originally announced January 2025.

Comments: 18 Pages, 12 Figures, Accepted to MNRAS. The supplementary material is hosted on the MNRAS website

The long-term variability of a population of ULXs monitored by Chandra

Authors: Hannah P. Earnshaw, Gauri Patti, Murray Brightman, Rajath Sathyaprakash, Dominic J. Walton, Felix Fuerst, Timothy P. Roberts, Fiona A. Harrison

Abstract: We present preliminary results of a Chandra Large Program to monitor the ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) populations of three nearby, ULX-rich galaxies over the course of a year, finding the ULX population to show a variety of long-term variability behaviours. Of a sample of 36 ULXs, some show persistent or moderately variable flux, often with a significant relationship between hardness and lumin… ▽ More We present preliminary results of a Chandra Large Program to monitor the ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) populations of three nearby, ULX-rich galaxies over the course of a year, finding the ULX population to show a variety of long-term variability behaviours. Of a sample of 36 ULXs, some show persistent or moderately variable flux, often with a significant relationship between hardness and luminosity, consistent with a supercritically accreting source with varying accretion rates. Six show very high-amplitude variability with no strong relationship between luminosity and hardness, though not all of them show evidence of any long-term periodicity, nor of the bimodal distribution indicative of the propeller effect. We find evidence of additional eclipses for two previously-identified eclipsing ULXs. Additionally, many sources that were previously identified as ULXs in previous studies were not detected at ULX luminosities during our monitoring campaign, indicating a large number of transient ULXs. △ Less

Submitted 11 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024.

Comments: 7 pages, 4 figures, to be published in Proceedings of the XMM-Newton Workshop 2024 "The X-ray Mysteries of Neutron Stars and White Dwarfs", Astronomische Nachrichten, in press

Simultaneous Optical and X-ray Detection of a Thermonuclear Burst in the 2024 Outburst of EXO 0748-676

Authors: Amy H. Knight, Lauren Rhodes, Douglas J. K. Buisson, James H. Matthews, Noel Castro Segura, Adam Ingram, Matthew Middleton, Timothy P. Roberts

Abstract: The neutron star low-mass X-ray binary, EXO 0748--676, recently returned to outburst after a $\sim$ 16 year-long quiescence. Since its return, there has been a global effort to capture the previously unseen rise of the source and to understand its somewhat early return to outburst, as it is typical for a source to spend longer in quiescence than in outburst. Here, we report on the simultaneous opt… ▽ More The neutron star low-mass X-ray binary, EXO 0748--676, recently returned to outburst after a $\sim$ 16 year-long quiescence. Since its return, there has been a global effort to capture the previously unseen rise of the source and to understand its somewhat early return to outburst, as it is typical for a source to spend longer in quiescence than in outburst. Here, we report on the simultaneous optical and X-ray detection of a type I X-ray burst, captured by XMM-Newton during a DDT observation on 30th June 2024. The data show 3 X-ray eclipses consistent with the known ephemeris and one type I X-ray burst at 60492.309 MJD. The X-ray burst is reprocessed into the optical band and captured by XMM-Newton's Optical Monitor during a 4399 s exposure with the B filter in image + fast mode. We determine that the optical peak lags the X-ray peak by 4.46 $\pm$ 1.71s. The optical and X-ray rise times are similar, but the optical decay timescale is shorter than the X-ray decay timescale. The reprocessing site is likely within a few light seconds of the X-ray emitting region, so the companion star, accretion disc and ablated material are all plausible. △ Less

Submitted 5 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024.

Comments: 6 Pages, 3 Figures, Accepted for Publication in MNRAS Letters

A New Broadband Spectral State in the Ultraluminous X-ray Source Holmberg IX X-1

Authors: D. J. Walton, M. Bachetti, P. Kosec, F. Furst, C. Pinto, T. P. Roberts, R. Soria, D. Stern, W. N. Alston, M. Brightman, H. P. Earnshaw, A. C. Fabian, F. A. Harrison, M. J. Middleton, R. Sathyaprakash

Abstract: We present a series of five new broadband X-ray observations of the ultraluminous X-ray source Holmberg IX X-1, performed by $XMM$-$Newton$ and $NuSTAR$ in coordination. The first three of these show high soft X-ray fluxes but a near total collapse of the high-energy ($\gtrsim$15 keV) emission, previously seen to be surprisingly stable across all prior broadband observations of the source. The lat… ▽ More We present a series of five new broadband X-ray observations of the ultraluminous X-ray source Holmberg IX X-1, performed by $XMM$-$Newton$ and $NuSTAR$ in coordination. The first three of these show high soft X-ray fluxes but a near total collapse of the high-energy ($\gtrsim$15 keV) emission, previously seen to be surprisingly stable across all prior broadband observations of the source. The latter two show a recovery in hard X-rays, remarkably once again respecting the same stable high-energy flux exhibited by all of the archival observations. We also present a joint analysis of all broadband observations of Holmberg IX X-1 to date (encompassing 11 epochs in total) in order to investigate whether it shows the same luminosity-temperature behaviour as NGC 1313 X-1 (which also shows a stable high-energy flux), whereby the hotter disc component in the spectrum exhibits two distinct, positively-correlated tracks in the luminosity-temperature plane. Holmberg IX X-1 may show similar behaviour, but the results depend on whether the highest energy emission is assumed to be an up-scattering corona or an accretion column. The strongest evidence for this behaviour is found in the former case, while in the latter the new 'soft' epochs appear distinct from the other high-flux epochs. We discuss possible explanations for these new 'soft' spectra in the context of the expected structure of super-Eddington accretion flows around black holes and neutron stars, and highlight a potentially interesting analogy with the recent destruction and re-creation of the corona seen in the AGN 1ES 1927+654. △ Less

Submitted 18 September, 2025; v1 submitted 18 September, 2024; originally announced September 2024.

Comments: 15 pages, 5 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

Exploring the case for hard-X-ray beaming in NGC 6946 X-1

Authors: Tobias Beuchert, Matthew J. Middleton, Roberto Soria, James C. A. Miller-Jones, Thomas Dauser, Timothy P. Roberts, Rajath Sathyaprakash, Sera Markoff

Abstract: In order to understand the nature of super-Eddington accretion we must explore both the emission emerging directly from the inflow and its impact on the surroundings. In this paper we test whether we can use the optical line emission of spatially resolved, ionized nebulae around ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) as a proxy for their X-ray luminosity. We choose the ULX NGC 6946 X-1 and its nebula,… ▽ More In order to understand the nature of super-Eddington accretion we must explore both the emission emerging directly from the inflow and its impact on the surroundings. In this paper we test whether we can use the optical line emission of spatially resolved, ionized nebulae around ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) as a proxy for their X-ray luminosity. We choose the ULX NGC 6946 X-1 and its nebula, MF16, as a test case. By studying how the nebular optical line emission responds to assumed irradiation, we can infer the degree to which we require the UV or X-ray emission from the inflow to be collimated by optically thick winds seemingly ubiquitously associated with ULXs. We find that the nebula is highly sensitive to compact UV emission but mostly insensitive to hard X-rays. Our attempts to quantify the beaming of the soft and hard X-rays therefore strongly depends on the UV luminosity of the ULX in the center of the nebula. We find that it is not possible to conclude a lack of geometrical beaming of hard X-rays from such sources via nebula feedback. △ Less

Submitted 14 August, 2024; originally announced August 2024.

Comments: 10 pages, 6 figures, 4 tables

Skipping a beat: discovery of persistent quasi-periodic oscillations associated with pulsed fraction drop of the spin signal in M51 ULX-7

Authors: Matteo Imbrogno, Sara Elisa Motta, Roberta Amato, Gian Luca Israel, Guillermo Andres Rodríguez Castillo, Murray Brightman, Piergiorgio Casella, Matteo Bachetti, Felix Fürst, Luigi Stella, Ciro Pinto, Fabio Pintore, Francesco Tombesi, Andrés Gúrpide, Matthew J. Middleton, Chiara Salvaggio, Andrea Tiengo, Andrea Belfiore, Andrea De Luca, Paolo Esposito, Anna Wolter, Hannah P. Earnshaw, Dominic J. Walton, Timothy P. Roberts, Luca Zampieri , et al. (2 additional authors not shown)

Abstract: The discovery of pulsations in (at least) six ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) has shown that neutron stars can accrete at (highly) super-Eddington rates, challenging the standard accretion theories. M51 ULX-7, with a spin signal of $P\simeq2.8$ s, is the pulsating ULX (PULX) with the shortest known orbital period ($P_\mathrm{orb}\simeq2$ d) and has been observed multiple times by XMM-Newton, Ch… ▽ More The discovery of pulsations in (at least) six ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) has shown that neutron stars can accrete at (highly) super-Eddington rates, challenging the standard accretion theories. M51 ULX-7, with a spin signal of $P\simeq2.8$ s, is the pulsating ULX (PULX) with the shortest known orbital period ($P_\mathrm{orb}\simeq2$ d) and has been observed multiple times by XMM-Newton, Chandra, and NuSTAR. We report on the timing and spectral analyses of three XMM-Newton observations of M51 ULX-7 performed between the end of 2021 and the beginning of 2022, together with a timing re-analysis of XMM-Newton, Chandra, and NuSTAR archival observations. We investigated the spin signal by applying accelerated search techniques and studied the power spectrum through the fast Fourier transform, looking for (a)periodic variability in the source flux. We analysed the energy spectra of the 2021-2022 observations and compared them to the older ones. We report the discovery of a recurrent, significant ($>$3$σ$) broad complex at mHz frequencies in the power spectra of M51 ULX-7. We did not detect the spin signal, setting a 3$σ$ upper limit on the pulsed fraction of $\lesssim10\%$ for the single observation. The complex is significantly detected also in five Chandra observations performed in 2012. M51 ULX-7 represents the second PULX for which we have a significant detection of mHz-QPOs at super-Eddington luminosities. These findings suggest that one should avoid using the observed QPO frequency to infer the mass of the accretor in a ULX. The absence of spin pulsations when the broad complex is detected suggests that the mechanism responsible for the aperiodic modulation also dampens the spin signal's pulsed fraction. If true, this represents an additional obstacle in the detection of new PULXs, suggesting an even larger occurrence of PULXs among ULXs. △ Less

Submitted 12 July, 2024; originally announced July 2024.

Comments: 14 pages (12 main text + Appendix), 5 figures. Accepted for publication on A&A

NGC 2403 XMM4: evidence for a super-Eddington neutron star with a possible transient pulsation

Authors: W. Luangtip, T. P. Roberts

Abstract: We present a study of the X-ray source NGC 2403 XMM4 (4XMM J073702.2+653934) based on 20 years of archival observations with XMM-Newton, Chandra, Swift and NuSTAR. Although it has previously been classified as an ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX), we show that its luminosity rarely, if ever, passes the $10^{39} \rm ~erg~s^{-1}$ threshold luminosity for a ULX. It does, however, behave very similarly… ▽ More We present a study of the X-ray source NGC 2403 XMM4 (4XMM J073702.2+653934) based on 20 years of archival observations with XMM-Newton, Chandra, Swift and NuSTAR. Although it has previously been classified as an ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX), we show that its luminosity rarely, if ever, passes the $10^{39} \rm ~erg~s^{-1}$ threshold luminosity for a ULX. It does, however, behave very similarly to ULXs, with its 0.3-10 keV spectra well described by two thermal components, the softer of which behaves consistently with the expectations for an advection-dominated disc ($L\propto T^{1.49\pm0.85}$), and we find tentative evidence for an extra spectral component above 10 keV. We also find moderately significant evidence for an absorption feature in one spectrum that could originate in an outflowing wind, although a cyclotron resonance scattering feature is also a possibility. Most intriguingly, we find a possible transient pulsation at $\sim 3.32$ Hz in a short segment of one observation using an accelerated pulsation search. This evidence suggests that NGC 2403 XMM4 is displaying many of the hallmarks of super-Eddington accretion at luminosities between $5 - 10 \times 10^{38} \rm ~erg~s^{-1}$ which, when considered alongside the putative pulsation, points to the presence of a neutron star as the accreting object this system. △ Less

Submitted 4 January, 2024; originally announced January 2024.

Comments: 15 pages, 9 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

On the nature of the ultraluminous X-ray source Holmberg II X-1

Authors: F. Barra, C. Pinto, M. Middleton, T. Di Salvo, D. J. Walton, A. Gúrpide, T. P. Roberts

Abstract: We present a comprehensive spectral analysis of the ultraluminous X-ray source Holmberg II X-1 using broadband and high-resolution X-ray spectra taken with the XMM-Newton satellite over a period of 19 years benefiting from a recent campaign. We tested several models for the broadband spectra among which a double thermal component provided a reasonable description for the continuum between 0.3-10 k… ▽ More We present a comprehensive spectral analysis of the ultraluminous X-ray source Holmberg II X-1 using broadband and high-resolution X-ray spectra taken with the XMM-Newton satellite over a period of 19 years benefiting from a recent campaign. We tested several models for the broadband spectra among which a double thermal component provided a reasonable description for the continuum between 0.3-10 keV and enabled us to constrain the properties of the accretion disc. The Luminosity-Temperature trends of the inner and outer disc components broadly agree with the expectations for a thin disc, although the exact values of the slopes are slightly sensitive to the adopted model. However, all tested models show L-T trends which deviate from a power law above a bolometric luminosity of about 5 $\times \ 10^{39} $erg/s, particularly for the hot thermal component associated to the inner accretion flow. Assuming that such deviations are due to the accretion rate exceeding its Eddington limit or, most likely, the super-critical rate, a compact object with a mass 16-36 Msun, i.e. a stellar-mass black hole, is inferred. The time-averaged (2021) high resolution spectra present narrow emission lines at 1 keV primarily from Ne IX-X and a very strong at 0.5 keV from N VII, which indicate Ne-N-rich gas with non-Solar abundances. This favours a nitrogen-rich donor star, such as a blue/red supergiant, which has escaped from its native stellar cluster characterised by a low-metallicity environment. △ Less

Submitted 27 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023.

Comments: 16 pages, 15 figures, accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics

The High Energy X-ray Probe (HEX-P): Studying Extreme Accretion with Ultraluminous X-ray Sources

Authors: Matteo Bachetti, Matthew J. Middleton, Ciro Pinto, Andrés Gúrpide, Dominic J. Walton, Murray Brightman, Bret Lehmer, Timothy P. Roberts, Georgios Vasilopoulos, Jason Alford, Roberta Amato, Elena Ambrosi, Lixin Dai, Hannah P. Earnshaw, Hamza El Byad, Javier A. García, Gian Luca Israel, Amruta Jaodand, Kristin Madsen, Chandreyee Maitra, Shifra Mandel, Kaya Mori, Fabio Pintore, Ken Ohsuga, Maura Pilia , et al. (3 additional authors not shown)

Abstract: Ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) represent an extreme class of accreting compact objects: from the identification of some of the accretors as neutron stars to the detection of powerful winds travelling at 0.1-0.2 c, the increasing evidence points towards ULXs harbouring stellar-mass compact objects undergoing highly super-Eddington accretion. Measuring their intrinsic properties, such as the acc… ▽ More Ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) represent an extreme class of accreting compact objects: from the identification of some of the accretors as neutron stars to the detection of powerful winds travelling at 0.1-0.2 c, the increasing evidence points towards ULXs harbouring stellar-mass compact objects undergoing highly super-Eddington accretion. Measuring their intrinsic properties, such as the accretion rate onto the compact object, the outflow rate, the masses of accretor/companion -- hence their progenitors, lifetimes, and future evolution -- is challenging due to ULXs being mostly extragalactic and in crowded fields. Yet ULXs represent our best opportunity to understand super-Eddington accretion physics and the paths through binary evolution to eventual double compact object binaries and gravitational wave sources. Through a combination of end-to-end and single-source simulations, we investigate the ability of HEX-P to study ULXs in the context of their host galaxies and compare it to XMM-Newton and NuSTAR, the current instruments with the most similar capabilities. HEX-P's higher sensitivity, which is driven by its narrow point-spread function and low background, allows it to detect pulsations and broad spectral features from ULXs better than XMM-Newton and NuSTAR. We describe the value of HEX-P in understanding ULXs and their associated key physics, through a combination of broadband sensitivity, timing resolution, and angular resolution, which make the mission ideal for pulsation detection and low-background, broadband spectral studies. △ Less

Submitted 10 November, 2023; v1 submitted 8 November, 2023; originally announced November 2023.

Comments: 24 pages, 9 figures. Accepted for publication in Frontiers of Astronomy and Space Science. Minor corrections included

Digging a little deeper: characterising three new extreme ULX candidates

Authors: T. P. Roberts, D. J. Walton, A. D. A. Mackenzie, M. Heida, S. Scaringi

Abstract: A prime motivation for compiling catalogues of any celestial X-ray source is to increase our numbers of rare sub-classes. In this work we take a recent multi-mission catalogue of ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) and look for hitherto poorly-studied ULX candidates that are luminous ($L_{\rm X} \geq 10^{40} \rm ~erg~s^{-1}$), bright ($f_{\rm X} \geq 5 \times 10^{-13} \rm ~erg~cm~s^{-1}$) and have… ▽ More A prime motivation for compiling catalogues of any celestial X-ray source is to increase our numbers of rare sub-classes. In this work we take a recent multi-mission catalogue of ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) and look for hitherto poorly-studied ULX candidates that are luminous ($L_{\rm X} \geq 10^{40} \rm ~erg~s^{-1}$), bright ($f_{\rm X} \geq 5 \times 10^{-13} \rm ~erg~cm~s^{-1}$) and have archival XMM-Newton data. We speculate that this luminosity regime may be ideal for identifying new pulsating ULXs (PULXs), given that the majority of known PULXs reach similar high luminosities. We find three sources that match our criteria, and study them using archival data. We find 4XMM J165251.5-591503 to possess a bright and variable Galactic optical/IR counterpart, and so conclude it is very likely to be a foreground interloper. 4XMM J091948.8-121429 does appear an excellent ULX candidate associated with the dwarf irregular galaxy PGC 26378, but has only one detection to date with low data quality. The best dataset belongs to 4XMM J112054.3+531040 which we find to be a moderately variable, spectrally hard ($Γ\approx 1.4$) X-ray source located in a spiral arm of NGC 3631. Its spectral hardness is similar to known PULXs, but no pulsations are detected by accelerated pulsation searches in the available data. We discuss whether other missions provide objects for similar studies, and compare this method to others suggested for identifying good PULX candidates. △ Less

Submitted 2 August, 2023; originally announced August 2023.

Comments: 15 pages, 9 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

The Large Deficit of HMXB Emission from Luminous Infrared Galaxies: the Case of the Circumnuclear Starburst Ring in NGC 7552

Authors: Lacey West, Kristen Garofali, Bret D. Lehmer, Andrea Prestwich, Rafael Eufrasio, Wasutep Luangtip, Timothy P. Roberts, Andreas Zezas

Abstract: Luminous infrared galaxies (LIRGs), the most extreme star-forming galaxies in the nearby (D$<$30 Mpc) Universe, show a notable X-ray emission deficiency (up to a factor of $\sim$10) compared with predictions from scaling relations of galaxy-wide high mass X-ray binary (HMXB) luminosity with star-formation rate. In the nearby ($\approx$20 Mpc) LIRG NGC 7552, the majority of the IR emission originat… ▽ More Luminous infrared galaxies (LIRGs), the most extreme star-forming galaxies in the nearby (D$<$30 Mpc) Universe, show a notable X-ray emission deficiency (up to a factor of $\sim$10) compared with predictions from scaling relations of galaxy-wide high mass X-ray binary (HMXB) luminosity with star-formation rate. In the nearby ($\approx$20 Mpc) LIRG NGC 7552, the majority of the IR emission originates in a circumnuclear starburst ring, which has been resolved into several discrete knots of star formation. We present results from recent Chandra observations of NGC 7552, which reveal significant deficits in the 2-7 keV X-ray luminosities from two of the most powerful star-forming knots. We hypothesize that the expected luminous HMXB populations in these knots are either (1) obscured by very large column densities or (2) suppressed due to the knots having relatively high metallicity and/or very young ages ($\lesssim$ 5 Myr). We distinguish between these possibilities using data from recent NuSTAR observations, whose sensitivity above 10 keV is capable of uncovering heavily obscured HMXB populations, since emission at these energies is more immune to absorption effects. We find no evidence of a heavily obscured HMXB population in the central region of NGC 7552, suggesting suppressed HMXB formation. We further show that metallicity-dependent scaling relations cannot fully account for the observed deficit from the most powerful star-forming knots or the central region as a whole. Thus, we suggest that recent bursts in local star formation activity likely drive the high $L_{\rm{IR}}$ within these regions on timescales $\lesssim$ 5 Myr, shorter than the timescale required for the formation of HMXBs. △ Less

Submitted 30 May, 2023; originally announced May 2023.

Comments: Accepted for publication in ApJ (17 pages, 3 tables, 8 figures)

Probing the nature of the low state in the extreme ultraluminous X-ray pulsar NGC 5907 ULX1

Authors: F. Fuerst, D. J. Walton, G. L. Israel, M. Bachetti, D. Barret, M. Brightman, H. P. Earnshaw, A. Fabian, M. Heida, M. Imbrogno, M. J. Middleton, C. Pinto, R. Salvaterra, T. P. Roberts, G. A. Rodríguez Castillo, N. Webb

Abstract: NGC 5907 ULX1 is the most luminous ultra-luminous X-ray pulsar (ULXP) known to date, reaching luminosities in excess of 1e41 erg/s. The pulsar is known for its fast spin-up during the on-state. Here, we present a long-term monitoring of the X-ray flux and the pulse period between 2003-2022. We find that the source was in an off- or low-state between mid-2017 to mid-2020. During this state, our pul… ▽ More NGC 5907 ULX1 is the most luminous ultra-luminous X-ray pulsar (ULXP) known to date, reaching luminosities in excess of 1e41 erg/s. The pulsar is known for its fast spin-up during the on-state. Here, we present a long-term monitoring of the X-ray flux and the pulse period between 2003-2022. We find that the source was in an off- or low-state between mid-2017 to mid-2020. During this state, our pulse period monitoring shows that the source had spun down considerably. We interpret this spin-down as likely being due to the propeller effect, whereby accretion onto the neutron star surface is inhibited. Using state-of-the-art accretion and torque models, we use the spin-up and spin-down episodes to constrain the magnetic field. For the spin-up episode, we find solutions for magnetic field strengths of either around 1e12G or 1e13G, however, the strong spin-down during the off-state seems only to be consistent with a very high magnetic field, namely, >1e13G. This is the first time a strong spin-down is seen during a low flux state in a ULXP. Based on the assumption that the source entered the propeller regime, this gives us the best estimate so far for the magnetic field of NGC 5907 ULX1. △ Less

Submitted 7 February, 2023; originally announced February 2023.

Comments: 10 pages, 1 figure, accepted for publication in A&A

Journal ref: A&A 672, A140 (2023)

Unveiling the disc structure in ultraluminous X-ray source NGC 55 ULX-1

Authors: F. Barra, C. Pinto, D. J. Walton, P. Kosec, A. D'Aì, T. Di Salvo, M. Del Santo, H. Earnshaw, A. C. Fabian, F. Fuerst, A. Marino, F. Pintore, A. Robba, T. P. Roberts

Abstract: Despite two decades of studies, it is still not clear whether ULX spectral transitions are due to stochastic variability in the wind or variations in the accretion rate or in the source geometry. The compact object is also unknown for most ULXs. In order to place constraints onto such scenarios and on the structure of the accretion disc, we studied the temporal evolution of the spectral components… ▽ More Despite two decades of studies, it is still not clear whether ULX spectral transitions are due to stochastic variability in the wind or variations in the accretion rate or in the source geometry. The compact object is also unknown for most ULXs. In order to place constraints onto such scenarios and on the structure of the accretion disc, we studied the temporal evolution of the spectral components of the variable source NGC 55 ULX-1. Using recent and archival data obtained with the XMM-Newton satellite, we modelled the spectra with two blackbody components which we interpret as thermal emission from the inner accretion flow and the regions around or beyond the spherization radius. The luminosity-temperature (L-T) relation of each spectral component agrees with the L proportional T^4 relationship expected from a thin disc model, which suggests that the accretion rate is close to the Eddington limit. However, there are some small deviations at the highest luminosities, possibly due to an expansion of the disc and a contribution from the wind at higher accretion rates. Assuming that such deviations are due to the crossing of the Eddington or supercritical accretion rate, we estimate a compact object mass of 6-14 Msun, favouring a stellar-mass black hole as the accretor. △ Less

Submitted 1 September, 2022; v1 submitted 26 July, 2022; originally announced July 2022.

Comments: 12 pages, 9 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

The variability behavior of NGC 925 ULX-3

Authors: Hannah P. Earnshaw, Murray Brightman, Fiona A. Harrison, Marianne Heida, Amruta Jaodand, Matthew J. Middleton, Timothy P. Roberts, Dominic J. Walton

Abstract: We report the results of a 2019-2021 monitoring campaign with Swift and associated target-of-opportunity observations with XMM-Newton and NuSTAR, examining the spectral and timing behavior of the highly variable ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) NGC 925 ULX-3. We find that the source exhibits a 127-128 day periodicity, with fluxes typically ranging from 1e-13 to 8e-13 ergs/s/cm2. We do not find str… ▽ More We report the results of a 2019-2021 monitoring campaign with Swift and associated target-of-opportunity observations with XMM-Newton and NuSTAR, examining the spectral and timing behavior of the highly variable ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) NGC 925 ULX-3. We find that the source exhibits a 127-128 day periodicity, with fluxes typically ranging from 1e-13 to 8e-13 ergs/s/cm2. We do not find strong evidence for a change in period over the time that NGC 925 ULX-3 has been observed, although the source may have been in a much lower flux state when first observed with Chandra in 2005. We do not detect pulsations, and we place an upper limit on the pulsed fraction of ~40% in the XMM-Newton band, consistent with some previous pulsation detections at low energies in other ULXs. The source exhibits a typical ULX spectrum that turns over in the NuSTAR band and can be fitted using two thermal components. These components have a high temperature ratio that may indicate the lack of extreme inner disk truncation by a magnetar-level magnetic field. We examine the implications for a number of different models for superorbital periods in ULXs, finding that a neutron star with a magnetic field of ~10^12 G may be plausible for this source. The future detection of pulsations from this source would allow for the further testing and constraining of such models. △ Less

Submitted 16 June, 2022; originally announced June 2022.

Comments: 13 pages, 6 figures, 2 tables. Accepted for publication in ApJ

A multi-wavelength view of distinct accretion regimes in the pulsating ultraluminous X-ray source NGC 1313 X-2

Authors: Rajath Sathyaprakash, Timothy P. Roberts, Fabien Grisè, Philip Kaaret, Elena Ambrosi, Christine Done, Jeanette C. Gladstone, Jari Kajava, Roberto Soria, Luca Zampieri

Abstract: NGC 1313 X-2 is one of the few known pulsating ultraluminous X-ray sources (PULXs), and so is thought to contain a neutron star that accretes at highly super-Eddington rates. However, the physics of this accretion remains to be determined. Here we report the results of two simultaneous XMM-Newton and HST observations of this PULX taken to observe two distinct X-ray behaviours as defined from its S… ▽ More NGC 1313 X-2 is one of the few known pulsating ultraluminous X-ray sources (PULXs), and so is thought to contain a neutron star that accretes at highly super-Eddington rates. However, the physics of this accretion remains to be determined. Here we report the results of two simultaneous XMM-Newton and HST observations of this PULX taken to observe two distinct X-ray behaviours as defined from its Swift light curve. We find that the X-ray spectrum of the PULX is best described by the hard ultraluminous (HUL) regime during the observation taken in the lower flux, lower variability amplitude behaviour; its spectrum changes to a broadened disc during the higher flux, higher variability amplitude epoch. However, we see no accompanying changes in the optical/UV fluxes, with the only difference being a reduction in flux in the near-IR as the X-ray flux increased. We attempt to fit irradiation models to explain the UV/optical/IR fluxes but they fail to provide meaningful constraints. Instead, a physical model for the system leads us to conclude that the optical light is dominated by a companion O/B star, albeit with an IR excess that may be indicative of a jet. We discuss how these results may be consistent with the precession of the inner regions of the accretion disc leading to changes in the observed X-ray properties, but not the optical, and whether we should expect to observe reprocessed emission from ULXs. △ Less

Submitted 14 February, 2022; originally announced February 2022.

Comments: Accepted for publication in MNRAS. Any comments welcome

The impact of precession on the observed population of ULXs

Authors: Norman Khan, Matthew. J. Middleton, Grzegorz Wiktorowicz, Thomas Dauser, Timothy P. Roberts, Joern Wilms

Abstract: The discovery of neutron stars powering several ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) raises important questions about the nature of the underlying population. In this paper we build on previous work studying simulated populations by incorporating a model where the emission originates from a precessing, geometrically beamed wind-cone, created by a super-critical inflow. We obtain estimates -- indepen… ▽ More The discovery of neutron stars powering several ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) raises important questions about the nature of the underlying population. In this paper we build on previous work studying simulated populations by incorporating a model where the emission originates from a precessing, geometrically beamed wind-cone, created by a super-critical inflow. We obtain estimates -- independent of the prescription for the precession period of the wind -- for the relative number of ULXs that are potentially visible (persistent or transient) for a range of underlying factors such as the relative abundance of black holes or neutron stars within the population, maximum precessional angle, and LMXB duty cycle. We make initial comparisons to existing data using a catalogue compiled from XMM-Newton. Finally, based on estimates for the precession period, we determine how the eROSITA all-sky survey (eRASS) will be able to constrain the underlying demographic. △ Less

Submitted 21 October, 2021; originally announced October 2021.

Comments: 14 pages, 8 Figures, Accepted submission MNRAS

A Multi-Mission Catalogue of Ultraluminous X-ray Source Candidates

Authors: D. J. Walton, A. D. A. Mackenzie, H. Gully, N. R. Patel, T. P. Roberts, H. P. Earnshaw, S. Mateos

Abstract: We present a new, multi-mission catalogue of ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) candidates, based on recent data releases from each of the XMM-Newton, Swift and Chandra observatories (the 4XMM-DR10, 2SXPS and CSC2 catalogues, respectively). This has been compiled by cross-correlating each of these X-ray archives with a large sample of galaxies primarily drawn from the HyperLEDA archive. Significant… ▽ More We present a new, multi-mission catalogue of ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) candidates, based on recent data releases from each of the XMM-Newton, Swift and Chandra observatories (the 4XMM-DR10, 2SXPS and CSC2 catalogues, respectively). This has been compiled by cross-correlating each of these X-ray archives with a large sample of galaxies primarily drawn from the HyperLEDA archive. Significant efforts have been made to clean the sample of known non-ULX contaminants (e.g. foreground stars, background AGN, supernovae), and also to identify ULX candidates that are common to the different X-ray catalogues utilized, allowing us to produce a combined 'master' list of unique sources. Our sample contains 1843 ULX candidates associated with 951 different host galaxies, making it the largest ULX catalogue compiled to date. Of these, 689 sources are catalogued as ULX candidates for the first time. Our primary motivation is to identify new sources of interest for detailed follow-up studies, and within our catalogue we have already found one new extreme ULX candidate that has high S/N data in the archive: NGC 3044 ULX1. This source has a peak luminosity of $L_{\rm{X,peak}} \sim 10^{40}$ erg s$^{-1}$, and the XMM-Newton spectrum of the source while at this peak flux is very similar to other, better-studied extreme ULXs that are now understood to be local examples of super-Eddington accretion. This likely indicates that NGC 3044 ULX1 is another source accreting at super-Eddington rates. We expect that this catalogue will be a valuable resource for planning future observations of ULXs - both with our current and future X-ray facilities - to further improve our understanding of this enigmatic population. △ Less

Submitted 14 October, 2021; originally announced October 2021.

Comments: 18 pages, 7 figures; accepted for publication in MNRAS

Broadband X-ray spectral variability of the pulsing ULX NGC 1313 X-2

Authors: A. Robba, C. Pinto, D. J. Walton, R. Soria, P. Kosec, F. Pintore, T. P. Roberts, W. N. Alston, M. Middleton, G. Cusumano, H. P. Earnshaw, F. Fuerst, R. Sathyaprakash, E. Kyritsis, A. C. Fabian

Abstract: It is thought that ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) are mainly powered by super-Eddington accreting neutron stars or black holes as shown by recent discovery of X-ray pulsations and relativistic winds. This work presents a follow up study of the spectral evolution over two decades of the pulsing ULX NGC 1313 X-2, in order to understand the structure of the accretion disc. The primary objective i… ▽ More It is thought that ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) are mainly powered by super-Eddington accreting neutron stars or black holes as shown by recent discovery of X-ray pulsations and relativistic winds. This work presents a follow up study of the spectral evolution over two decades of the pulsing ULX NGC 1313 X-2, in order to understand the structure of the accretion disc. The primary objective is to determine the shape and nature of the dominant spectral components by investigating their variability with the changes in the source luminosity. We have performed a spectral analysis over the canonical 0.3-10 keV energy band of all the high signal-to-noise XMM-Newton observations, and we have tested a number of different spectral models, which should approximate super-Eddington accretion discs. The baseline model consists of two thermal blackbody components with different temperatures plus an exponential cutoff powerlaw. In particular, the hotter and brighter thermal component describes the emission from the super-Eddington inner disc and the cutoff powerlaw the contribution from the accretion column of the neutron star. Instead, the cooler component describes the emission from the outer region of the disc close to the spherisation radius and the wind. The luminosity-temperature relation for the cool component follows a negative trend, which is not consistent with L$\propto$T$^4$, as expected from a sub-Eddington thin disc of Shakura-Sunayev, nor with L$\propto$T$^2$, as expected for advection-dominated disc, but would rather agree with a wind-dominated X-ray emitting region. Instead, the (L,T) relation for the hotter component is somewhere in between the first two theoretical scenarios. Our findings agree with the super-Eddington scenario and provide further detail on the disc structure. The source spectral evolution is qualitatively similar to that seen in NGC1313 X-1 and HolmbergIX X-1. △ Less

Submitted 29 June, 2021; v1 submitted 8 June, 2021; originally announced June 2021.

Comments: 19 pages, including 10 figures and 8 tables, accepted for pubblication in A&A

Journal ref: A&A 652, A118 (2021)

XMM-Newton campaign on the ultraluminous X-ray source NGC 247 ULX-1: outflows

Authors: C. Pinto, R. Soria, D. Walton, A. D'Ai, F. Pintore, P. Kosec, W. N. Alston, F. Fuerst, M. J. Middleton, T. P. Roberts, M. Del Santo, D. Barret, E. Ambrosi, A. Robba, H. Earnshaw, A. Fabian

Abstract: Most ULXs are believed to be powered by super-Eddington accreting neutron stars and, perhaps, black holes. Above the Eddington rate the disc is expected to thicken and to launch powerful winds through radiation pressure. Winds have been recently discovered in several ULXs. However, it is yet unclear whether the thickening of the disc or the wind variability causes the switch between the classical… ▽ More Most ULXs are believed to be powered by super-Eddington accreting neutron stars and, perhaps, black holes. Above the Eddington rate the disc is expected to thicken and to launch powerful winds through radiation pressure. Winds have been recently discovered in several ULXs. However, it is yet unclear whether the thickening of the disc or the wind variability causes the switch between the classical soft and supersoft states observed in some ULXs. In order to understand such phenomenology and the overall super-Eddington mechanism, we undertook a large (800 ks) observing campaign with XMM-Newton to study NGC 247 ULX-1, which shifts between a supersoft and classical soft ULX state. The new observations show unambiguous evidence of a wind in the form of emission and absorption lines from highly-ionised ionic species, with the latter indicating a mildly-relativistic outflow (-0.17c) in line with the detections in other ULXs. Strong dipping activity is observed in the lightcurve and primarily during the brightest observations, which is typical among soft ULXs, and indicates a close relationship between the accretion rate and the appearance of the dips. The latter is likely due to a thickening of the disc scale-height and the wind as shown by a progressively increasing blueshift in the spectral lines. △ Less

Submitted 4 June, 2021; v1 submitted 22 April, 2021; originally announced April 2021.

Comments: 18 pages, 16 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

Quasi-periodic dipping in the ultraluminous X-ray source, NGC 247 ULX-1

Authors: W. N. Alston, C. Pinto, D. Barret, A. D'Ai, M. Del Santo, H. Earnshaw, A. C. Fabian, F. Fuerst, E. Kara, P. Kosec, M. J. Middleton, M. L. Parker, F. Pintore, A. Robba, T. P. Roberts, R. Sathyaprakash, D. Walton, E. Ambrosi

Abstract: Most ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) are believed to be stellar mass black holes or neutron stars accreting beyond the Eddington limit. Determining the nature of the compact object and the accretion mode from broadband spectroscopy is currently a challenge, but the observed timing properties provide insight into the compact object and details of the geometry and accretion processes. Here we rep… ▽ More Most ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) are believed to be stellar mass black holes or neutron stars accreting beyond the Eddington limit. Determining the nature of the compact object and the accretion mode from broadband spectroscopy is currently a challenge, but the observed timing properties provide insight into the compact object and details of the geometry and accretion processes. Here we report a timing analysis for an 800 ks XMM-Newton campaign on the supersoft ultraluminous X-ray source, NGC 247 ULX-1. Deep and frequent dips occur in the X-ray light curve, with the amplitude increasing with increasing energy band. Power spectra and coherence analysis reveals the dipping preferentially occurs on $\sim 5$ ks and $\sim 10$ ks timescales. The dips can be caused by either the occultation of the central X-ray source by an optically thick structure, such as warping of the accretion disc, or from obscuration by a wind launched from the accretion disc, or both. This behaviour supports the idea that supersoft ULXs are viewed close to edge-on to the accretion disc. △ Less

Submitted 19 May, 2021; v1 submitted 22 April, 2021; originally announced April 2021.

Comments: Accepted MNRAS version following minor comments. 8 pages, 6 figures

A New Transient Ultraluminous X-ray Source in NGC 7090

Authors: D. J. Walton, M. Heida, M. Bachetti, F. Furst, M. Brightman, H. Earnshaw, P. A. Evans, A. C. Fabian, B. W. Grefenstette, F. A. Harrison, G. L. Israel, G. B. Lansbury, M. J. Middleton, S. Pike, V. Rana, T. P. Roberts, G. A. Rodriguez Castillo, R. Salvaterra, X. Song, D. Stern

Abstract: We report on the discovery of a new, transient ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) in the galaxy NGC 7090. This new ULX, which we refer to as NGC 7090 ULX3, was discovered via monitoring with $Swift$ during 2019-20, and to date has exhibited a peak luminosity of $L_{\rm{X}} \sim 6 \times 10^{39}$ erg s$^{-1}$. Archival searches show that, prior to its recent transition into the ULX regime, ULX3 appea… ▽ More We report on the discovery of a new, transient ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) in the galaxy NGC 7090. This new ULX, which we refer to as NGC 7090 ULX3, was discovered via monitoring with $Swift$ during 2019-20, and to date has exhibited a peak luminosity of $L_{\rm{X}} \sim 6 \times 10^{39}$ erg s$^{-1}$. Archival searches show that, prior to its recent transition into the ULX regime, ULX3 appeared to exhibit a fairly stable luminosity of $L_{\rm{X}} \sim 10^{38}$ erg s$^{-1}$. Such strong long-timescale variability may be reminiscent of the small population of known ULX pulsars, although deep follow-up observations with $XMM$-$Newton$ and $NuSTAR$ do not reveal any robust X-ray pulsation signals. Pulsations similar to those seen from known ULX pulsars cannot be completely excluded, however, as the limit on the pulsed fraction of any signal that remains undetected in these data is $\lesssim$20\%. The broadband spectrum from these observations is well modelled with a simple thin disc model, consistent with sub-Eddington accretion, which may instead imply a moderately large black hole accretor ($M_{\rm{BH}} \sim 40 ~ M_{\odot}$). Similarly, though, more complex models consistent with the super-Eddington spectra seen in other ULXs (and the known ULX pulsars) cannot be excluded given the limited signal-to-noise of the available broadband data. The nature of the accretor powering this new ULX therefore remains uncertain. △ Less

Submitted 19 November, 2020; v1 submitted 17 November, 2020; originally announced November 2020.

Comments: 11 pages, 7 figures; accepted for publication in MNRAS

NIR Counterparts to ULXs (III): Completing the photometric survey and selected spectroscopic results

Authors: K. M. López, M. Heida, P. G. Jonker, M. A. P. Torres, T. P. Roberts, D. J. Walton, D. -S. Moon, F. A. Harrison

Abstract: We present results from the remaining sources in our search for near-infrared (NIR) candidate counterparts to ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) within $\simeq$ 10 Mpc. We observed 23 ULXs in 15 galaxies and detected NIR candidate counterparts to six of them. Two of these have an absolute magnitude consistent with a single red supergiant (RSG). Three counterparts are too bright for a RSG and spati… ▽ More We present results from the remaining sources in our search for near-infrared (NIR) candidate counterparts to ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) within $\simeq$ 10 Mpc. We observed 23 ULXs in 15 galaxies and detected NIR candidate counterparts to six of them. Two of these have an absolute magnitude consistent with a single red supergiant (RSG). Three counterparts are too bright for a RSG and spatially extended, and thus we classify them as stellar clusters. The other candidate is too faint for a RSG. Additionally, we present the results of our NIR spectroscopic follow-up of five sources: four originally classified as RSG and one as a stellar cluster on the basis of previous photometry. The stellar cluster candidate is actually a nebula. Of the four RSGs candidates, one source has a broad H$α$ emission line redshifted by $\sim z = 1$, making it a background AGN. Two other sources show stellar spectra consistent with them being RSGs. The final RSG candidate is too faint to classify, but does not show strong (nebular) emission lines in its spectrum. After our search for NIR counterparts to 113 ULXs, where we detected a candidate counterpart for 38 ULXs, we have spectroscopically confirmed the nature of 12: five sources are nebulae, one source is not classified, one source is an AGN and five are RSGs. These possible five ULX-RSG binary systems would constitute $\simeq$ $(4 \pm 2)\%$ of the observed ULXs, a fraction almost four times larger than what was predicted by binary evolution simulations. △ Less

Submitted 4 June, 2020; originally announced June 2020.

Comments: 20 pages, 10 figures, 8 tables, accepted for publication in MNRAS

The Ultraluminous X-ray sources population of the galaxy NGC 7456

Authors: F. Pintore, M. Marelli, R. Salvaterra, G. L. Israel, G. A. Rodríguez Castillo, P. Esposito, A. Belfiore, A. De Luca, A. Wolter, S. Mereghetti, L. Stella, M. Rigoselli, H. P. Earnshaw, C. Pinto, T. P. Roberts, D. J. Walton, F. Bernardini, F. Haberl, C. Salvaggio, A. Tiengo, L. Zampieri, M. Bachetti, M. Brightman, P. Casella, D. D'Agostino , et al. (6 additional authors not shown)

Abstract: Ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) are a class of accreting compact objects with X-ray luminosities above 1e39 erg/s. The ULX population counts several hundreds objects but only a minor fraction is well studied. Here we present a detailed analysis of all ULXs hosted in the galaxy NGC 7456. It was observed in X-rays only once in the past (in 2005) by XMM-Newton, but the observation was short and st… ▽ More Ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) are a class of accreting compact objects with X-ray luminosities above 1e39 erg/s. The ULX population counts several hundreds objects but only a minor fraction is well studied. Here we present a detailed analysis of all ULXs hosted in the galaxy NGC 7456. It was observed in X-rays only once in the past (in 2005) by XMM-Newton, but the observation was short and strongly affected by high background. In 2018, we obtained a new, deeper (~90 ks) XMM-Newton observation that allowed us to perform a detailed characterization of the ULXs hosted in the galaxy. ULX-1 and ULX-2, the two brightest objects (Lx~(6-10)e39 erg/s), have spectra that can be described by a two-thermal component model as often found in ULXs. ULX-1 shows also one order of magnitude in flux variability on short-term timescales (hundreds to thousand ks). The other sources (ULX-3 and ULX-4) show flux changes of at least an order of magnitude, and these objects may be candidate transient ULXs although longer X-ray monitoring or further studies are required to ascribe them to the ULX population. In addition, we found a previously undetected source that might be a new candidate ULX (labelled as ULX-5) with a luminosity of ~1e39 erg/s and hard power-law spectral shape, whose nature is still unclear and for which a background Active Galactic Nucleus cannot be excluded. We discuss the properties of all the ULXs in NGC 7456 within the framework of super-Eddington accretion onto stellar mass compact objects. Although no pulsations were detected, we cannot exclude that the sources host neutron stars. △ Less

Submitted 27 January, 2020; v1 submitted 23 January, 2020; originally announced January 2020.

Comments: Accepted on ApJ; 10 pages, 5 figures, 3 tables

The (re)appearance of NGC 925 ULX-3, a new transient ULX

Authors: Hannah P. Earnshaw, Marianne Heida, Murray Brightman, Felix Fürst, Fiona A. Harrison, Amruta Jaodand, Matthew J. Middleton, Timothy P. Roberts, Rajath Sathyaprakash, Daniel Stern, Dominic J. Walton

Abstract: We report the discovery of a third ULX in NGC 925 (ULX-3), detected in November 2017 by Chandra at a luminosity of $L_{\rm X} = (7.8\pm0.8)\times10^{39}$ erg s$^{-1}$. Examination of archival data for NGC 925 reveals that ULX-3 was detected by Swift at a similarly high luminosity in 2011, as well as by XMM-Newton in January 2017 at a much lower luminosity of $L_{\rm X} = (3.8\pm0.5)\times10^{38}$… ▽ More We report the discovery of a third ULX in NGC 925 (ULX-3), detected in November 2017 by Chandra at a luminosity of $L_{\rm X} = (7.8\pm0.8)\times10^{39}$ erg s$^{-1}$. Examination of archival data for NGC 925 reveals that ULX-3 was detected by Swift at a similarly high luminosity in 2011, as well as by XMM-Newton in January 2017 at a much lower luminosity of $L_{\rm X} = (3.8\pm0.5)\times10^{38}$ erg s$^{-1}$. With an additional Chandra non-detection in 2005, this object demonstrates a high dynamic range of flux of factor >26. In its high-luminosity detections, ULX-3 exhibits a hard power-law spectrum with $Γ=1.6\pm0.1$, whereas the XMM-Newton detection is slightly softer, with $Γ=1.8^{+0.2}_{-0.1}$ and also well-fitted with a broadened disc model. The long-term light curve is sparsely covered and could be consistent either with the propeller effect or with a large-amplitude superorbital period, both of which are seen in ULXs, in particular those with neutron star accretors. Further systematic monitoring of ULX-3 will allow us to determine the mechanism by which ULX-3 undergoes its extreme variability and to better understand the accretion processes of ULXs. △ Less

Submitted 19 February, 2020; v1 submitted 2 January, 2020; originally announced January 2020.

Comments: 9 pages, 3 figures, 1 table. Accepted for publication in ApJ; updated to accepted version with minor revisions

The Unusual Broadband X-ray Spectral Variability of NGC 1313 X-1 seen with XMM$-$Newton, Chandra and NuSTAR

Authors: D. J. Walton, C. Pinto, M. Nowak, M. Bachetti, R. Sathyaprakash, E. Kara, T. P. Roberts, R. Soria, M. Brightman, C. R. Canizares, H. P. Earnshaw, F. Furst, M. Heida, M. J. Middleton, D. Stern, L. Tao, N. Webb, W. N. Alston, D. Barret, A. C. Fabian, F. A. Harrison, P. Kosec

Abstract: We present results from the major coordinated X-ray observing program on the ULX NGC 1313 X-1 performed in 2017, combining $XMM$-$Newton$, $Chandra$ and $NuSTAR$, focusing on the evolution of the broadband ($\sim$0.3-30.0 keV) continuum emission. Clear and unusual spectral variability is observed, but this is markedly suppressed above $\sim$10-15 keV, qualitatively similar to the ULX Holmberg IX X… ▽ More We present results from the major coordinated X-ray observing program on the ULX NGC 1313 X-1 performed in 2017, combining $XMM$-$Newton$, $Chandra$ and $NuSTAR$, focusing on the evolution of the broadband ($\sim$0.3-30.0 keV) continuum emission. Clear and unusual spectral variability is observed, but this is markedly suppressed above $\sim$10-15 keV, qualitatively similar to the ULX Holmberg IX X-1. We model the multi-epoch data with two-component accretion disc models designed to approximate super-Eddington accretion, allowing for both a black hole and a neutron star accretor. With regards to the hotter disc component, the data trace out two distinct tracks in the luminosity-temperature plane, with larger emitting radii and lower temperatures seen at higher observed fluxes. Despite this apparent anti-correlation, each of these tracks individually shows a positive luminosity-temperature relation. Both are broadly consistent with $L\propto{T}^{4}$, as expected for blackbody emission with a constant area, and also with $L\propto{T}^{2}$, as may be expected for an advection-dominated disc around a black hole. We consider a variety of possibilities for this unusual behaviour. Scenarios in which the innermost flow is suddenly blocked from view by outer regions of the super-Eddington disc/wind can explain the luminosity-temperature behaviour, but are difficult to reconcile with the lack of strong variability at higher energies, assuming this emission arises from the most compact regions. Instead, we may be seeing evidence for further radial stratification of the accretion flow than is included in the simple models considered, with a combination of winds and advection resulting in the suppressed high-energy variability. △ Less

Submitted 21 April, 2020; v1 submitted 21 November, 2019; originally announced November 2019.

Comments: 18 pages, 7 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

Discovery of a soft X-ray lag in the Ultraluminous X-ray Source NGC 1313 X-1

Authors: E. Kara, C. Pinto, D. J. Walton, W. N. Alston, M. Bachetti, D. Barret, M. Brightman, C. R. Canizares, H. P. Earnshaw, A. C. Fabian, F. Furst, P. Kosec, M. J. Middleton, T. P. Roberts, R. Soria, L. Tao, N. A. Webb

Abstract: Ultraluminous X-ray Sources (ULXs) provide a unique opportunities to probe the geometry and energetics of super-Eddington accretion. The radiative processes involved in super-Eddington accretion are not well understood, and so studying correlated variability between different energy bands can provide insights into the causal connection between different emitting regions. We present a spectral-timi… ▽ More Ultraluminous X-ray Sources (ULXs) provide a unique opportunities to probe the geometry and energetics of super-Eddington accretion. The radiative processes involved in super-Eddington accretion are not well understood, and so studying correlated variability between different energy bands can provide insights into the causal connection between different emitting regions. We present a spectral-timing analysis of NGC 1313 X-1 from a recent XMM-Newton campaign. The spectra can be decomposed into two thermal-like components, the hotter of which may originate from the inner accretion disc, and the cooler from an optically thick outflow. We find correlated variability between hard (2-10 keV) and soft (0.3-2 keV) bands on kilosecond timescales, and find a soft lag of ~150 seconds. The covariance spectrum suggests that emission contributing to the lags is largely associated with the hotter of the two thermal-like components, likely originating from the inner accretion flow. This is only the third ULX to exhibit soft lags. The lags range over three orders of magnitude in amplitude, but all three are ~5 to ~20 percent of the corresponding characteristic variability timescales. If these soft lags can be understood in the context of a unified picture of ULXs, then lag timescales may provide constraints on the density and extent of radiatively-driven outflows. △ Less

Submitted 21 November, 2019; originally announced November 2019.

Comments: Re-submitted to MNRAS after minor revisions, 7 pages, 5 figures

XMM-Newton Campaign On Ultraluminous X-ray Source NGC 1313 X-1: Wind vs. State Variability

Authors: C. Pinto, D. J. Walton, E. Kara, M. L. Parker, R. Soria, P. Kosec, M. J. Middleton, W. N. Alston, A. C. Fabian, M. Guainazzi, T. P. Roberts, F. Fuerst, H. P. Earnshaw, R. Sathyaprakash, D. Barret

Abstract: Most ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) are thought to be powered by neutron stars and black holes accreting beyond the Eddington limit. If the compact object is a black hole or a neutron star with a magnetic field $\lesssim10^{12}$ G, the accretion disc is expected to thicken and launch powerful winds driven by radiation pressure. Evidence of such winds has been found in ULXs through the high-res… ▽ More Most ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) are thought to be powered by neutron stars and black holes accreting beyond the Eddington limit. If the compact object is a black hole or a neutron star with a magnetic field $\lesssim10^{12}$ G, the accretion disc is expected to thicken and launch powerful winds driven by radiation pressure. Evidence of such winds has been found in ULXs through the high-resolution spectrometers onboard XMM-Newton, but several unknowns remain, such as the geometry and launching mechanism of these winds. In order to better understand ULX winds and their link to the accretion regime, we have undertaken a major campaign with XMM-Newton to study the ULX NGC 1313 X-1, which is known to exhibit strong emission and absorption features from a mildly-relativistic wind. The new observations show clear changes in the wind with a significantly weakened fast component (0.2c) and the rise of a new wind phase which is cooler and slower (0.06-0.08c). We also detect for the first time variability in the emission lines which indicates an origin within the accretion disc or in the wind. We describe the variability of the wind in the framework of variable super-Eddington accretion rate and discuss a possible geometry for the accretion disc. △ Less

Submitted 13 January, 2020; v1 submitted 21 November, 2019; originally announced November 2019.

Comments: 20 pages, 16 figures, 4 tables, accepted for publication in MNRAS

The Hunt for Pulsating Ultraluminous X-ray Sources

Authors: X. Song, D. J. Walton, G. B. Lansbury, P. A. Evans, A. C. Fabian, H. Earnshaw, T. P. Roberts

Abstract: Motivated by the recent discoveries that six Ultraluminous X-ray Sources (ULXs) are powered by highly super-Eddington X-ray pulsars, we searched for additional pulsating ULX (PULX) candidates by identifying sources that exhibit long-term flux variability of at least an order of magnitude (a common feature seen in the 6 known PULXs, which may potentially be related to transitions to the propeller r… ▽ More Motivated by the recent discoveries that six Ultraluminous X-ray Sources (ULXs) are powered by highly super-Eddington X-ray pulsars, we searched for additional pulsating ULX (PULX) candidates by identifying sources that exhibit long-term flux variability of at least an order of magnitude (a common feature seen in the 6 known PULXs, which may potentially be related to transitions to the propeller regime). Expanding on previous studies, we used the available fluxes from XMM-Newton, Swift and Chandra, along with carefully computed upper limits in cases of a non-detection, to construct long-term lightcurves for a sample of 296 ULXs selected from the XMM-Newton archive. Among these 296, we find 25 sources showing flux variability larger than a factor of 10, of which 17 show some evidence for (or are at least consistent with) exhibiting bi-modal flux distributions, as would be expected for sources undergoing propeller transitions. These sources are excellent candidates for continued monitoring programs to further test for this behaviour. There are 3 sources in our final sample with fluxes similar to NGC 5907 ULX1, currently the faintest known PULX, which would also be good targets for deeper observations with current facilities to search for pulsations. For the rest of the PULX candidates identified here, the next generation of X-ray telescopes (such as Athena) may be required to determine their nature owing to their lower peak fluxes. △ Less

Submitted 25 October, 2019; originally announced October 2019.

Comments: 19 pages, 11 figures. Accepted for publication in MNRAS

Discovery and analysis of a ULX nebula in NGC 3521

Authors: K. M. López, P. G. Jonker, M. Heida, M. A. P. Torres, T. P. Roberts, D. J. Walton, D. -S. Moon, F. A. Harrison

Abstract: We present Very Large Telescope/X-shooter and Chandra X-ray observatory/ACIS observations of the ULX [SST2011] J110545.62+000016.2 in the galaxy NGC 3521. The source identified as a candidate near-infrared counterpart to the ULX in our previous study shows an emission line spectrum of numerous recombination and forbidden lines in the visible and near-infrared spectral regime. The emission from the… ▽ More We present Very Large Telescope/X-shooter and Chandra X-ray observatory/ACIS observations of the ULX [SST2011] J110545.62+000016.2 in the galaxy NGC 3521. The source identified as a candidate near-infrared counterpart to the ULX in our previous study shows an emission line spectrum of numerous recombination and forbidden lines in the visible and near-infrared spectral regime. The emission from the candidate counterpart is spatially extended ($\sim$ 34 pc) and appears to be connected with an adjacent H II region, located $\sim$ 138 pc to the NE. The measured velocities of the emission lines confirm that both the candidate counterpart and H II region reside in NGC 3521. The intensity ratios of the emission lines from the ULX counterpart show that the line emission originates from the combined effect of shock and photoionisation of low metallicity (12 + log (O/H) = 8.19 $\pm$ 0.11) gas. Unfortunately, there is no identifiable spectral signature directly related to the photosphere of the mass-donor star in our spectrum. From the archival Chandra data, we derive the X-ray luminosity of the source in the 0.3-7 keV range to be (1.9 $\pm$ 0.8) $\times$ 10$^{40}$ erg cm$^{-2}$ s$^{-1}$, almost a factor of four higher than what is previously reported. △ Less

Submitted 30 July, 2019; originally announced July 2019.

Comments: 17 pages, 10 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

Observational limits on the X-ray emission from the bubble nebula surrounding Ho IX X-1

Authors: Rajath Sathyaprakash, Timothy P. Roberts, Magdalena M. Siwek

Abstract: Optical and radio observations of shock-ionised bubble nebulae surrounding ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) suggest that they are powered by jets or super-critical outflows presumably launched from the ULX accretion disc. Recent simulations of these systems have shown that the shocked wind can emit thermal X-rays with estimated luminosities $\sim 10^{36}$ erg s$^{-1}$. In this work, we investiga… ▽ More Optical and radio observations of shock-ionised bubble nebulae surrounding ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) suggest that they are powered by jets or super-critical outflows presumably launched from the ULX accretion disc. Recent simulations of these systems have shown that the shocked wind can emit thermal X-rays with estimated luminosities $\sim 10^{36}$ erg s$^{-1}$. In this work, we investigated whether it is possible to detect and spatially resolve the X-ray emission from these systems using archival Chandra observations of the ULX Holmberg IX X-1. This source is an ideal target to study for two reasons: it is surrounded by an optical bubble nebula with a large spatial extent ($\sim$ 400 pc) that can easily be resolved with Chandra. Further, it has a hard X-ray continuum that is easily distinguishable from the expected soft thermal emission from the nebula. However, a spectral and photometric analysis on stacked Chandra observations of the source reveals that there is no strong evidence for an X-ray bubble associated with it, to a limiting luminosity of $\sim 2 \times 10^{36}$ erg s$^{-1}$. The detection of such X-ray nebulae may be possible with future X-ray missions such as Athena, which would provide useful constraints on the kinematics of the outflow. Finally, our observations also emphasise that the nebular emission does not contribute significantly to the residuals in the X-ray spectrum of the source, which are more likely to be linked to processes localised to the ULX. △ Less

Submitted 15 July, 2019; originally announced July 2019.

Comments: 9 pages, 6 figures; accepted for publication in MNRAS

Discovery of a 2.8 s pulsar in a 2 d orbit High-Mass X-ray Binary powering the Ultraluminous X-ray source ULX-7 in M51

Authors: G. A. Rodríguez Castillo, G. L. Israel, A. Belfiore, F. Bernardini, P. Esposito, F. Pintore, A. De Luca, A. Papitto, L. Stella, A. Tiengo, L. Zampieri, M. Bachetti, M. Brightman, P. Casella, D. D'Agostino, S. Dall'Osso, H. P. Earnshaw, F. Fürst, F. Haberl, F. A. Harrison, M. Mapelli, M. Marelli, M. Middleton, C. Pinto, T. P. Roberts , et al. (4 additional authors not shown)

Abstract: We discovered 2.8 s pulsations in the X-ray emission of the ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) M51 ULX-7 within the UNSEeN project, which was designed to hunt for new pulsating ULXs (PULXs) with XMM-Newton. The pulse shape is sinusoidal and large variations of its amplitude were observed even within single exposures (pulsed fraction from less than 5% to 20%). M51 ULX-7 is a variable source, generall… ▽ More We discovered 2.8 s pulsations in the X-ray emission of the ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) M51 ULX-7 within the UNSEeN project, which was designed to hunt for new pulsating ULXs (PULXs) with XMM-Newton. The pulse shape is sinusoidal and large variations of its amplitude were observed even within single exposures (pulsed fraction from less than 5% to 20%). M51 ULX-7 is a variable source, generally observed at an X-ray luminosity between $10^{39}$ and $10^{40}$ erg s$^{-1}$, located in the outskirts of the spiral galaxy M51a at a distance of 8.6 Mpc. According to our analysis, the X-ray pulsar orbits in a 2-d binary with a projected semi-major axis $a_\mathrm{X} \sin i \simeq$ 28 lt-s. For a neutron star (NS) of 1.4 $M_{\odot}$, this implies a lower limit on the companion mass of 8 $M_{\odot}$, placing the system hosting M51 ULX-7 in the high-mass X-ray binary class. The barycentric pulse period decreased by $\simeq$0.4 ms in the 31 d spanned by our May -- June 2018 observations, corresponding to a spin-up rate $\dot{P} \simeq -1.5\times10^{-10}\text{s s}^{-1}$. In an archival 2005 XMM-Newton exposure, we measured a spin period of $\sim$3.3 s, indicating a secular spin-up of $\dot{P}_{\mathrm{sec}}\simeq -10^{-9}\text{ s s}^{-1}$, a value in the range of other known PULXs. Our findings suggest that the system consists of an OB giant and a moderately magnetic (dipole field component in the range $10^{12}$ G $\lesssim B_{\mathrm{dip}}\lesssim 10^{13}$G) accreting NS with weakly beamed emission ($1/12\lesssim b\lesssim1/4$). △ Less

Submitted 11 May, 2020; v1 submitted 11 June, 2019; originally announced June 2019.

Comments: Accepted for publication in The Astrophysical Journal

The discovery of weak coherent pulsations in the ultraluminous X-ray source NGC 1313 X-2

Authors: R. Sathyaprakash, T. P. Roberts, D. J. Walton, F. Fuerst, M. Bachetti, C. Pinto, W. N. Alston, H. P. Earnshaw, A. C. Fabian, M. J. Middleton, R. Soria

Abstract: We report the detection of weak pulsations from the archetypal ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) NGC 1313 X-2. Acceleration searches reveal sinusoidal pulsations in segments of two out of six new deep observations of this object, with a period of $\sim$ 1.5 s and a pulsed fraction of $\sim$ 5%. We use Monte Carlo simulations to demonstrate that the individual detections are unlikely to originate in… ▽ More We report the detection of weak pulsations from the archetypal ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) NGC 1313 X-2. Acceleration searches reveal sinusoidal pulsations in segments of two out of six new deep observations of this object, with a period of $\sim$ 1.5 s and a pulsed fraction of $\sim$ 5%. We use Monte Carlo simulations to demonstrate that the individual detections are unlikely to originate in false Poisson noise detections given their very close frequencies; their strong similarity to other pulsations detected from ULXs also argues they are real. The presence of a large bubble nebula surrounding NGC 1313 X-2 implies an age of order 1 Myr for the accreting phase of the ULX, which implies that the neutron star's magnetic field has not been suppressed over time by accreted material, nor has the neutron star collapsed into a black hole, despite an average energy output into the nebula two orders of magnitude above Eddington. This argues that most of the accreted material has been expelled over the lifetime of the ULX, favouring physical models including strong winds and/or jets for neutron star ULXs. △ Less

Submitted 3 June, 2019; originally announced June 2019.

Comments: 6 pages, 4 figures, accepted for publication by MNRAS. Comments are welcomed

Discovery of a radio transient in M81

Authors: G. E. Anderson, J. C. A. Miller-Jones, M. J. Middleton, R. Soria, D. A. Swartz, R. Urquhart, N. Hurley-Walker, P. J. Hancock, R. P. Fender, P. Gandhi, S. Marko, T. P. Roberts

Abstract: We report the discovery of a radio transient in the spiral galaxy M81. The transient was detected in early 2015 as part of a two-year survey of M81 made up of 12 epochs using the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array. While undetected on 2014 September 12, the source was first detected on 2015 January 2, from which point it remained visible at an approximately constant luminosity of… ▽ More We report the discovery of a radio transient in the spiral galaxy M81. The transient was detected in early 2015 as part of a two-year survey of M81 made up of 12 epochs using the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array. While undetected on 2014 September 12, the source was first detected on 2015 January 2, from which point it remained visible at an approximately constant luminosity of $L_{R} = 1.5 \pm 0.1 \times 10^{24}$erg s$^{-1}$ Hz$^{-1}$ at the observing frequency of 6 GHz for at least 2 months. Assuming this is a synchrotron event with a rise-time between 2.6 and 112 days, the peak luminosity (at equipartition) corresponds to a minimum energy of $10^{44} \lesssim E_{min} \lesssim 10^{46}$erg and jet power of $P_{min} \sim 10^{39}$erg s$^{-1}$, which are higher than most known X-ray binaries. Given its longevity, lack of short-term radio variability, and the absence of any multi-wavelength counterpart (X-ray luminosity $L_{X} \lesssim 10^{36}$erg s$^{-1}$), it does not behave like known Galactic or extragalactic X-ray binaries. The M81 transient radio properties more closely resemble the unidentified radio transient 43.78+59.3 discovered in M82, which has been suggested to be a radio nebula associated with an accreting source similar to SS 433. One possibility is that both the new M81 transient and the M82 transient may be the birth of a short-lived radio bubble associated with a discrete accretion event similar to those observed from the ULX Holmberg II X-1. However, it is not possible to rule out other identifications including long-term supernova shockwave interactions with the surrounding medium from a faint supernova or a background active galaxy. △ Less

Submitted 16 September, 2019; v1 submitted 9 May, 2019; originally announced May 2019.

Comments: 18 pages, 5 figures, 6 tables, accepted for publication in MNRAS

The Lense-Thirring timing-accretion plane for ULXs

Authors: M. Middleton, P. C. Fragile, A. Ingram, T. P. Roberts

Abstract: Identifying the compact object in ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) has to-date required detection of pulsations or a cyclotron resonance scattering feature (CRSF), indicating a magnetised neutron star. However, pulsations are observed to be transient and it is plausible that accretion onto the neutron star may have suppressed the surface magnetic field such that pulsations and CRSFs will be enti… ▽ More Identifying the compact object in ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) has to-date required detection of pulsations or a cyclotron resonance scattering feature (CRSF), indicating a magnetised neutron star. However, pulsations are observed to be transient and it is plausible that accretion onto the neutron star may have suppressed the surface magnetic field such that pulsations and CRSFs will be entirely absent. We may therefore lack direct means to identify neutron star systems whilst we presently lack an effective means by which to identify black hole ULXs. Here we present a possible method for separating the ULX population by assuming the X-ray, mHz quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs) and day timescale periods/QPOs are associated with Lense-Thirring precession of the inflow and outflowing wind respectively. The precession timescales combined with the temperature of the soft X-ray component produce planes where the accretor mass enters as a free parameter. Depending on the properties of the wind, use of these planes may be robust to a range in the angular momentum (spin) and, for high accretion rates, essentially independent of the neutron star's surface dipole field strength. Our model also predicts the mHz QPO frequency and magnitude of the phase-lag imprinted due to propagation through the optically thick wind; in the case of NGC 5408 X-1 we subsequently infer a black hole mass and high spin. Finally, we note that observing secular QPO evolution over sufficient baselines may indicate a neutron star, as the precession responds to spin-up which is not readily observable for black hole primaries. △ Less

Submitted 9 September, 2019; v1 submitted 7 May, 2019; originally announced May 2019.

Comments: 17 pages, accepted to MNRAS (updated, pre-epoof)

Thermal stability of winds driven by radiation pressure in super-Eddington accretion disks

Authors: Ciro Pinto, Missagh Mehdipour, Dom J. Walton, Matthew J. Middleton, Tim P. Roberts, Andrew C. Fabian, Matteo Guainazzi, Roberto Soria, Peter Kosec, Jan-Uwe Ness

Abstract: Ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) are mainly powered by accretion in neutron stars or stellar-mass black holes. Accreting at rates exceeding the Eddington limit by factors of a few up to hundreds, radiation pressure is expected to inflate the accretion disc, and drive fast winds that have in fact been observed at significant fractions of the speed of light. Given the super-Eddington luminosity, t… ▽ More Ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) are mainly powered by accretion in neutron stars or stellar-mass black holes. Accreting at rates exceeding the Eddington limit by factors of a few up to hundreds, radiation pressure is expected to inflate the accretion disc, and drive fast winds that have in fact been observed at significant fractions of the speed of light. Given the super-Eddington luminosity, the accretion disc will be thicker than in sub-Eddington accretors such as common active galactic nuclei and X-ray binaries, leading to a different spectral energy distribution and, possibly, a different thermal status of the wind. Here we show the first attempt to calculate the photoionization balance of the winds driven by strong radiation pressure in thick discs with a focus on ULXs hosting black holes or non-magnetic neutron stars. We find that the winds are generally in thermally stable equilibrium, but long-term variations in the accretion rate and the inclination due to precession may have significant effects on the wind appearance and stability. Our model trends can explain the observed correlation between the spectral residuals around 1 keV and the ULX spectral state. We also find a possible correlation between the spectral hardness of the ULX, the wind velocity and the ionization parameter in support of the general scenario. △ Less

Submitted 5 December, 2019; v1 submitted 14 March, 2019; originally announced March 2019.

Comments: 17 pages, 9 figures, 5 tables, accepted for publication in MNRAS

A new, clean catalogue of extragalactic non-nuclear X-ray sources in nearby galaxies

Authors: H. P. Earnshaw, T. P. Roberts, M. J. Middleton, D. J. Walton, S. Mateos

Abstract: We have created a new, clean catalogue of extragalactic non-nuclear X-ray sources by correlating the 3XMM-DR4 data release of the XMM-Newton Serendipitous Source Catalogue with the Third Reference Catalogue of Bright Galaxies and the Catalogue of Neighbouring Galaxies, using an improved version of the method presented in Walton et al. (2011). Our catalogue contains 1,314 sources, of which 384 are… ▽ More We have created a new, clean catalogue of extragalactic non-nuclear X-ray sources by correlating the 3XMM-DR4 data release of the XMM-Newton Serendipitous Source Catalogue with the Third Reference Catalogue of Bright Galaxies and the Catalogue of Neighbouring Galaxies, using an improved version of the method presented in Walton et al. (2011). Our catalogue contains 1,314 sources, of which 384 are candidate ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs). The resulting catalogue improves upon previous catalogues in its handling of spurious detections by taking into account XMM-Newton quality flags. We estimate the contamination of ULXs by background sources to be 24 per cent. We define a 'complete' subsample as those ULXs in galaxies for which the sensitivity limit is below $10^{39}$ erg/s and use it to examine the hardness ratio properties between ULX and non-ULX sources, and ULXs in different classes of host galaxy. We find that ULXs have a similar hardness ratio distribution to lower-luminosity sources, consistent with previous studies. We also find that ULXs in spiral and elliptical host galaxies have similar distributions to each other independent of host galaxy morphology, however our results do support previous indications that the population of ULXs is more luminous in star-forming host galaxies than in non-star-forming galaxies. Our catalogue contains further interesting subpopulations for future study, including Eddington Threshold sources and highly variable ULXs. We also examine the highest-luminosity (L$_X$ > $5 \times 10^{40}$ erg/s) ULXs in our catalogue in search of intermediate-mass black hole candidates, and find nine new possible candidates. △ Less

Submitted 11 December, 2018; originally announced December 2018.

Comments: 20 pages, 14 figures, 7 tables. Accepted for publication by MNRAS

A long hard-X-ray look at the dual active galactic nuclei of M51 with NuSTAR

Authors: M. Brightman, M. Baloković, M. Koss, D. M. Alexander, A. Annuar, H. Earnshaw, P. Gandhi, F. A. Harrison, A. E. Hornschemeier, B. Lehmer, M. C. Powell, A. Ptak, B. Rangelov, T. P. Roberts, D. Stern, D. J. Walton, A. Zezas

Abstract: We present a broadband X-ray spectral analysis of the M51 system, including the dual active galactic nuclei (AGN) and several off-nuclear point sources. Using a deep observation by NuSTAR, new high-resolution coverage of M51b by Chandra, and the latest X-ray torus models, we measure the intrinsic X-ray luminosities of the AGN in these galaxies. The AGN of M51a is found to be Compton thick, and bot… ▽ More We present a broadband X-ray spectral analysis of the M51 system, including the dual active galactic nuclei (AGN) and several off-nuclear point sources. Using a deep observation by NuSTAR, new high-resolution coverage of M51b by Chandra, and the latest X-ray torus models, we measure the intrinsic X-ray luminosities of the AGN in these galaxies. The AGN of M51a is found to be Compton thick, and both AGN have very low accretion rates ($λ_{\rm Edd} <10^{-4}$). The latter is surprising considering that the galaxies of M51 are in the process of merging, which is generally predicted to enhance nuclear activity. We find that the covering factor of the obscuring material in M51a is $0.26 \pm 0.03$, consistent with the local AGN obscured fraction at $L_{\rm X}\sim 10^{40}$ erg s$^{-1}$. The substantial obscuring column does not support theories that the torus, presumed responsible for the obscuration, disappears at these low accretion luminosities. However, the obscuration may have resulted from the gas infall driven by the merger rather than the accretion process. We report on several extra-nuclear sources with $L_{\rm X}>10^{39}$ erg s$^{-1}$ and find that a spectral turnover is present below 10 keV in most such sources, in line with recent results on ultraluminous X-ray sources. △ Less

Submitted 13 September, 2018; v1 submitted 30 May, 2018; originally announced May 2018.

Comments: Accepted for publication in ApJ

Searching for propeller-phase ULXs in the XMM-Newton Serendipitous Source Catalogue

Authors: H. P. Earnshaw, T. P. Roberts, R. Sathyaprakash

Abstract: We search for transient sources in a sample of ULXs from the 3XMM-DR4 release of the XMM-Newton Serendipitous Source Catalogue in order to find candidate neutron star ULXs alternating between an accreting state and the propeller regime, in which the luminosity drops dramatically. By examining their fluxes and flux upper limits, we identify five ULXs that demonstrate long-term variability of over a… ▽ More We search for transient sources in a sample of ULXs from the 3XMM-DR4 release of the XMM-Newton Serendipitous Source Catalogue in order to find candidate neutron star ULXs alternating between an accreting state and the propeller regime, in which the luminosity drops dramatically. By examining their fluxes and flux upper limits, we identify five ULXs that demonstrate long-term variability of over an order of magnitude. Using Chandra and Swift data to further characterise their light curves, we find that two of these sources are detected only once and could be X-ray binaries in outburst that only briefly reach ULX luminosities. Two others are consistent with being super-Eddington accreting sources with high levels of inter-observation variability. One source, M51 ULX-4, demonstrates apparent bimodal flux behaviour that could indicate the propeller regime. It has a hard X-ray spectrum, but no significant pulsations in its timing data, although with an upper limit of 10% of the signal pulsed at ~1.5 Hz a pulsating ULX cannot be excluded, particularly if the pulsations are transient. By simulating XMM-Newton observations of a population of pulsating ULXs, we predict that there could be approximately 200 other bimodal ULXs that have not been observed sufficiently well by XMM-Newton to be identified as transient. △ Less

Submitted 21 February, 2018; originally announced February 2018.

Comments: 6 pages, 3 figures, 1 table. Accepted for publication by MNRAS

Lense-Thirring precession in ULXs as a possible means to constrain the neutron star equation-of-state

Authors: M. J. Middleton, P. C. Fragile, M. Bachetti, M. Brightman, Y-F. Jiang, W. C. G. Ho, T. P. Roberts, A. R. Ingram, T. Dauser, C. Pinto, D. J. Walton, F. Fuerst, A. C. Fabian, N. Gehrels

Abstract: The presence of neutron stars in at least three ultraluminous X-ray sources is now firmly established and offers an unambiguous view of super-critical accretion. All three systems show long-timescale periods (60-80 days) in the X-rays and/or optical, two of which are known to be super-orbital in nature. Should the flow be classically super critical, i.e. the Eddington limit is reached locally in t… ▽ More The presence of neutron stars in at least three ultraluminous X-ray sources is now firmly established and offers an unambiguous view of super-critical accretion. All three systems show long-timescale periods (60-80 days) in the X-rays and/or optical, two of which are known to be super-orbital in nature. Should the flow be classically super critical, i.e. the Eddington limit is reached locally in the disc (implying surface dipole fields that are sub-magnetar in strength), then the large scale-height flow can precess through the Lense-Thirring effect which could provide an explanation for the observed super-orbital periods. By connecting the details of the Lense-Thirring effect with the observed pulsar spin period, we are able to infer the moment-of-inertia and therefore equation-of-state of the neutron star without relying on the inclination of, or distance to the system. We apply our technique to the case of NGC 7793 P13 and demonstrate that stronger magnetic fields imply stiffer equations of state. We discuss the caveats and uncertainties, many of which can be addressed through forthcoming radiative magnetohydrodynamic (RMHD) simulations and their connection to observation. △ Less

Submitted 20 November, 2017; originally announced November 2017.

Comments: 14 pages, 9 figures, accepted to MNRAS

Optical and X-ray luminosity of expanding nebulae around ultraluminous X-ray sources

Authors: Magdalena Siwek, Aleksander Sadowski, Ramesh Narayan, Timothy P. Roberts, Roberto Soria

Abstract: We have performed a set of simulations of expanding, spherically symmetric nebulae inflated by winds from accreting black holes in ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs). We implemented a realistic cooling function to account for free-free and bound-free cooling. For all model parameters we considered, the forward shock in the interstellar medium becomes radiative at a radius $\sim $ 100 pc. The emiss… ▽ More We have performed a set of simulations of expanding, spherically symmetric nebulae inflated by winds from accreting black holes in ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs). We implemented a realistic cooling function to account for free-free and bound-free cooling. For all model parameters we considered, the forward shock in the interstellar medium becomes radiative at a radius $\sim $ 100 pc. The emission is primarily in the optical and UV, and the radiative luminosity is about 50% of the total kinetic luminosity of the wind. In contrast, the reverse shock in the wind is adiabatic so long as the terminal outflow velocity of the wind $v_{\rm w} \sim 0.003c$. The shocked wind in these models radiates in X-rays, but with a luminosity of only $\sim 10^{35} \rm\,erg\,s^{-1}$. For wind velocities $v_{\rm w} \sim 0.001c$, the shocked wind becomes radiative, but it is no longer hot enough to produce X-rays. Instead it emits in optical and UV, and the radiative luminosity is comparable to 100% of the wind kinetic luminosity. We suggest that measuring the optical luminosities and putting limits on the X-ray and radio emission from shock-ionized ULX bubbles may help in estimating the mass outflow rate of the central accretion disk and the velocity of the outflow. △ Less

Submitted 11 May, 2017; originally announced May 2017.

Comments: 11 pages, 7 figures

A Systematic Search for Near-Infrared Counterparts of Nearby Ultraluminous X-ray sources (II)

Authors: K. M. López, M. Heida, P. G. Jonker, M. A. P. Torres, T. P. Roberts, D. J. Walton, D. -S. Moon, F. A. Harrison

Abstract: We present the results of our continued systematic search for near-infrared (NIR) candidate counterparts to ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) within 10 Mpc. We observed 42 ULXs in 24 nearby galaxies and detected NIR candidate counterparts to 15 ULXs. Fourteen of these ULXs appear to have a single candidate counterpart in our images and the remaining ULX has 2 candidate counterparts. Seven ULXs ha… ▽ More We present the results of our continued systematic search for near-infrared (NIR) candidate counterparts to ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) within 10 Mpc. We observed 42 ULXs in 24 nearby galaxies and detected NIR candidate counterparts to 15 ULXs. Fourteen of these ULXs appear to have a single candidate counterpart in our images and the remaining ULX has 2 candidate counterparts. Seven ULXs have candidate counterparts with absolute magnitudes in the range between -9.26 and -11.18 mag, consistent with them being red supergiants (RSGs). The other eight ULXs have candidate counterparts with absolute magnitudes too bright to be a single stellar source. Some of these NIR sources show extended morphology or colours expected for Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN), strongly suggesting that they are likely stellar clusters or background galaxies. The red supergiant candidate counterparts form a valuable sample for follow-up spectroscopic observations to confirm their nature, with the ultimate goal of directly measuring the mass of the compact accretor that powers the ULX using binary Doppler shifts. △ Less

Submitted 4 April, 2017; originally announced April 2017.

Comments: 14 pages, 2 figures, 5 tables, accepted for publication in MNRAS

Ultraluminous X-Ray Sources

Authors: Philip Kaaret, Hua Feng, Timothy P. Roberts

Abstract: We review observations of ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs). X-ray spectroscopic and timing studies of ULXs suggest a new accretion state distinct from those seen in Galactic stellar-mass black hole binaries. The detection of coherent pulsations indicates the presence of neutron-star accretors in three ULXs and therefore apparently super-Eddington luminosities. Optical and X-ray line profiles of… ▽ More We review observations of ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs). X-ray spectroscopic and timing studies of ULXs suggest a new accretion state distinct from those seen in Galactic stellar-mass black hole binaries. The detection of coherent pulsations indicates the presence of neutron-star accretors in three ULXs and therefore apparently super-Eddington luminosities. Optical and X-ray line profiles of ULXs and the properties of associated radio and optical nebulae suggest that ULXs produce powerful outflows, also indicative of super-Eddington accretion. We discuss models of super-Eddington accretion and their relation to the observed behaviors of ULXs. We review the evidence for intermediate mass black holes in ULXs. We consider the implications of ULXs for super-Eddington accretion in active galactic nuclei, heating of the early universe, and the origin of the black hole binary recently detected via gravitational waves. △ Less

Submitted 30 March, 2017; originally announced March 2017.

Comments: 38 pages, to appear in Annual Reviews of Astronomy and Astrophysics

Soft Extragalactic X-Ray Binaries at the Eddington Threshold

Authors: Hannah M. Earnshaw, Timothy P. Roberts

Abstract: The luminosity range at and just below the 10^39 erg/s cut-off for defining ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) is a little-explored regime. It none-the-less hosts a large number of X-ray sources, and has great potential for improving our understanding of sources with ~Eddington accretion rates. We select a sample of four sources in this Eddington Threshold regime with good data for further study;… ▽ More The luminosity range at and just below the 10^39 erg/s cut-off for defining ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) is a little-explored regime. It none-the-less hosts a large number of X-ray sources, and has great potential for improving our understanding of sources with ~Eddington accretion rates. We select a sample of four sources in this Eddington Threshold regime with good data for further study; these objects possess a variety of soft spectral shapes. We perform X-ray spectral and timing analysis on the XMM-Newton and Chandra data for these objects to gain insight into their accretion mechanisms, and also examine their optical counterparts using HST images. NGC 300 X-1 is a highly luminous and well-known example of the canonical steep power-law accretion state. M51 ULS exhibits a cool blackbody-like spectrum and is consistent with being an ultraluminous supersoft source (ULS), possibly a super-Eddington accreting object viewed at a high inclination through an optically thick outflowing wind. NGC 4395 ULX-1 and NGC 6946 ULX-1 have unusually steep power-law tails, for which we discuss a variety of possible physical mechanisms and links to similar features in Galactic microquasars, and we conclude that these sources are likely intermediate objects between the soft ultraluminous regime of ULXs and classic ULSs. △ Less

Submitted 1 February, 2017; originally announced February 2017.

Comments: 16 pages, 7 figures, 6 tables. Accepted for publication in MNRAS

From ultraluminous X-ray sources to ultraluminous supersoft sources: NGC 55 ULX, the missing link

Authors: C. Pinto, W. Alston, R. Soria, M. J. Middleton, D. J. Walton, A. D. Sutton, A. C. Fabian, H. Earnshaw, R. Urquhart, E. Kara, T. P. Roberts

Abstract: In recent work with high-resolution grating spectrometers (RGS) aboard XMM-Newton Pinto et al. (2016) have discovered that two bright and archetypal ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) have strong relativistic winds in agreement with theoretical predictions of high accretion rates. It has been proposed that such winds can become optically thick enough to block and reprocess the disk X-ray photons a… ▽ More In recent work with high-resolution grating spectrometers (RGS) aboard XMM-Newton Pinto et al. (2016) have discovered that two bright and archetypal ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) have strong relativistic winds in agreement with theoretical predictions of high accretion rates. It has been proposed that such winds can become optically thick enough to block and reprocess the disk X-ray photons almost entirely, making the source appear as a soft thermal emitter or ultraluminous supersoft X-ray source (ULS). To test this hypothesis we have studied a ULX where the wind is strong enough to cause significant absorption of the hard X-ray continuum: NGC 55 ULX. The RGS spectrum of NGC 55 ULX shows a wealth of emission and absorption lines blueshifted by significant fractions of the light speed (0.01 - 0.20)c indicating the presence of a powerful wind. The wind has a complex dynamical structure with the ionization state increasing with the outflow velocity, which may indicate launching from different regions of the accretion disk. The comparison with other ULXs such as NGC 1313 X-1 and NGC 5408 X-1 suggests that NGC 55 ULX is being observed at higher inclination. The wind partly absorbs the source flux above 1 keV, generating a spectral drop similar to that observed in ULSs. The softening of the spectrum at lower (~ Eddington) luminosities and the detection of a soft lag agree with the scenario of wind clumps crossing the line of sight, partly absorbing and reprocessing the hard X-rays from the innermost region. △ Less

Submitted 14 March, 2017; v1 submitted 16 December, 2016; originally announced December 2016.

Comments: 20 pages, 20 figures, 7 tables, accepted for publication in MNRAS after moderate review. Conclusions have not been changed

Crossing the Eddington limit: examining disk spectra at high accretion rates

Authors: Andrew D. Sutton, Douglas A. Swartz, Timothy P. Roberts, Matthew J. Middleton, Roberto Soria, Chris Done

Abstract: The faintest ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs), those with 0.3-10 keV luminosities 1 < L_X/10^39 < 3 erg s^-1, tend to have X-ray spectra that are disk-like but broader than expected for thin accretion disks. These `broadened disk' spectra are thought to indicate near- or mildly super-Eddington accretion onto stellar remnant black holes. Here we report that a sample of bright thermal-dominant bla… ▽ More The faintest ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs), those with 0.3-10 keV luminosities 1 < L_X/10^39 < 3 erg s^-1, tend to have X-ray spectra that are disk-like but broader than expected for thin accretion disks. These `broadened disk' spectra are thought to indicate near- or mildly super-Eddington accretion onto stellar remnant black holes. Here we report that a sample of bright thermal-dominant black hole binaries, which have Eddington ratios constrained to moderate values, also show broadened disk spectra in the 0.3-10 keV band at an order of magnitude lower luminosities. This broadening would be missed in studies that only look above ~2 keV. While this may suggest that broadened disk ULXs could be powered by accretion onto massive stellar remnant black holes with close to maximal spin, we argue in favor of a scenario where they are at close to the Eddington luminosity, such that radiation pressure would be expected to result in geometrically slim, advective accretion disks. However, this implies that an additional physical mechanism is required to produce the observed broad spectra at low Eddington ratios. △ Less

Submitted 28 November, 2016; originally announced November 2016.

Comments: 20 pages, 7 figures, accepted for publication in ApJ

Amygdala and insula contributions to dorsal-ventral pathway integration in the prosodic neural network

Authors: David I. Leitman, Christopher Edgar, Jeffery Berman, Krystal Gamez, Sascha Fruhholz, Timothy P. L. Roberts

Abstract: Speech prosody enables communication of emotional intentions via modulation of vocal intonations. Reciprocal interactions between superior temporal (STG) and inferior frontal gyri (IFG) have been shown to anchor a neural network for prosodic comprehension, which we refer to as the Prosody Neural Network (PNN). Although the amygdala is critical for socio-emotional processing, its integral functiona… ▽ More Speech prosody enables communication of emotional intentions via modulation of vocal intonations. Reciprocal interactions between superior temporal (STG) and inferior frontal gyri (IFG) have been shown to anchor a neural network for prosodic comprehension, which we refer to as the Prosody Neural Network (PNN). Although the amygdala is critical for socio-emotional processing, its integral functional and structural role in processing social information from speech prosody as well as its role in the PNN is largely unexplored including inconsistent recent empirical findings. Here, we used magnetoencephalography and diffusion magnetic resonance imaging of white-matter pathways to establish that the PNN is characterized by (1) a robust amygdala-cortical functional connectivity that dynamically evolves as prosodic interpretation progresses, (2) direct structural fiber connections between amygdala and STG/IFG traversing a ventral white-matter pathway, and (3) robust amygdala-insula functional connectivity and structural insula fiber projections to arcuate STG-IFG connections. These findings support a role for functional and structural amygdala-centric ventral pathways in combining speech features to form prosodic percepts. They also highlight insula contributions to prosodic comprehension, potentially via vertical integration of amygdala-centric ventral processing into dorsal pathways responsible for prosodic motor articulation and speech planning. △ Less

Submitted 5 November, 2016; originally announced November 2016.

Comments: Main document: 41 pages 6 figures 1 table supplemental material: 4 figures

Spitzer IRAC observations of IR excess in Holmberg IX X-1: A circumbinary disk or a variable jet?

Authors: R. P. Dudik, C. T. Berghea, T. P. Roberts, F. Grise, A. Singh, R. Pagano, L. M. Winter

Abstract: We present Spitzer Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) photometric observations of the Ultra-luminous X-ray Source (ULX, X-1) in Holmberg IX. We construct a spectral energy distribution (SED) for Holmberg IX X-1 based on published optical, UV and X-ray data combined with the IR data from this analysis. We modeled the X-ray and optical data with disk and stellar models, however we find a clear IR excess i… ▽ More We present Spitzer Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) photometric observations of the Ultra-luminous X-ray Source (ULX, X-1) in Holmberg IX. We construct a spectral energy distribution (SED) for Holmberg IX X-1 based on published optical, UV and X-ray data combined with the IR data from this analysis. We modeled the X-ray and optical data with disk and stellar models, however we find a clear IR excess in the ULX SED that cannot be explained by fits or extrapolations of any of these models. Instead, further analysis suggests that the IR excess results either from dust emission, possibly from a circumbinary disk or from a variable jet. △ Less

Submitted 18 August, 2016; originally announced August 2016.

Comments: 25 pages, 2 figures, accepted by ApJ

A 78 Day X-ray Period Detected from NGC 5907 ULX1 by Swift

Authors: D. J. Walton, F. Fuerst, M. Bachetti, D. Barret, M. Brightman, A. C. Fabian, N. Gehrels, F. A. Harrison, M. Heida, M. J. Middleton, V. Rana, T. P. Roberts, D. Stern, L. Tao, N. Webb

Abstract: We report the detection of a $78.1\pm0.5$ day period in the X-ray lightcurve of the extreme ultraluminous X-ray source NGC 5907 ULX1 ($L_{\rm{X,peak}}\sim5\times10^{40}$ erg s$^{-1}$), discovered during an extensive monitoring program with Swift. These periodic variations are strong, with the observed flux changing by a factor of $\sim$3-4 between the peaks and the troughs of the cycle; our simula… ▽ More We report the detection of a $78.1\pm0.5$ day period in the X-ray lightcurve of the extreme ultraluminous X-ray source NGC 5907 ULX1 ($L_{\rm{X,peak}}\sim5\times10^{40}$ erg s$^{-1}$), discovered during an extensive monitoring program with Swift. These periodic variations are strong, with the observed flux changing by a factor of $\sim$3-4 between the peaks and the troughs of the cycle; our simulations suggest that the observed periodicity is detected comfortably in excess of 3$σ$ significance. We discuss possible origins for this X-ray period, but conclude that at the current time we cannot robustly distinguish between orbital and super-orbital variations. △ Less

Submitted 25 July, 2016; originally announced July 2016.

Comments: 6 pages, 3 figures, accepted for publication in ApJL

The X-ray spectral evolution of the ultraluminous X-ray source Holmberg IX X-1

Authors: W. Luangtip, T. P. Roberts, C. Done

Abstract: We present a new analysis of X-ray spectra of the archetypal ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) Holmberg IX X-1 obtained by the Swift, XMM-Newton and NuSTAR observatories. This ULX is a persistent source, with a typical luminosity of ~10^40 erg s^-1, that varied by a factor of 4 - 5 over eight years. We find that its spectra tend to evolve from relatively flat or two-component spectra in the medium… ▽ More We present a new analysis of X-ray spectra of the archetypal ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) Holmberg IX X-1 obtained by the Swift, XMM-Newton and NuSTAR observatories. This ULX is a persistent source, with a typical luminosity of ~10^40 erg s^-1, that varied by a factor of 4 - 5 over eight years. We find that its spectra tend to evolve from relatively flat or two-component spectra in the medium energy band (1-6 keV), at lower luminosities, to a spectrum that is distinctly curved and disc-like at the highest luminosities, with the peak energy in the curved spectrum tending to decrease with increased luminosity. We argue that the spectral evolution of the ULX can be explained by super-Eddington accretion models, where in this case we view the ULX down the evacuated funnel along its rotation axis, bounded by its massive radiatively driven wind. The spectral changes then originate in enhanced geometric beaming as the accretion rate increases and wind funnel narrows, causing the scattered flux from the central regions of the supercritical flow to brighten faster than the isotropic thermal emission from the wind, and so the curved hard spectral component to dominate at the highest luminosities. The wind also Compton down-scatters photons at the edge of the funnel, resulting in the peak energy of the spectrum decreasing. We also confirm that Holmberg IX X-1 displays spectral degeneracy with luminosity, and suggest that the observed differences are naturally explained by precession of the black hole rotation axis for the suggested wind geometry. △ Less

Submitted 26 May, 2016; originally announced May 2016.

Comments: Accepted for publication in MNRAS; 18 pages, 8 figures, 6 tables