Showing 1–50 of 362 results for author: Rey, M

Collective Quantum Logic Spectroscopy

Authors: Raphael Kaubruegger, Matthew Patkowski, Yicheng Zhang, Robert J. Lewis-Swan, David B. Hume, Ana Maria Rey

Abstract: Scaling trapped-ion quantum sensors from single ions to large ensembles is a key challenge for next-generation precision measurements. At the same time, many ion species of interest for optical clocks and tests of fundamental physics lack closed cycling transitions required for direct laser cooling and state detection. Collective quantum logic spectroscopy addresses both limitations by coupling an… ▽ More Scaling trapped-ion quantum sensors from single ions to large ensembles is a key challenge for next-generation precision measurements. At the same time, many ion species of interest for optical clocks and tests of fundamental physics lack closed cycling transitions required for direct laser cooling and state detection. Collective quantum logic spectroscopy addresses both limitations by coupling an ensemble of sensor, or spectroscopy, ions to one or more logic ions that provide sympathetic cooling and state readout. Here, we establish the fundamental performance limits and operating regimes of this protocol, identifying how the interaction strength, interrogation time, and logic-ensemble size govern sensitivity, dynamic range, and robustness to experimental imperfections. We show that quantum-limited sensitivity can be retained even with a single logic ion, while increasing the number of logic ions substantially improves readout efficiency and robustness. Beyond precision metrology, the same collective interface enables many-body measurements relevant to quantum information processing, including parity measurements and stabilizer-like syndrome extraction. Our results establish collective quantum logic spectroscopy as a scalable framework for optical clocks, quantum-enhanced sensing, and trapped-ion quantum information processing. △ Less

Submitted 20 August, 2026; originally announced August 2026.

Substrate contact angle governs microgel shape, stiffness and deposition pattern

Authors: M. Friederike Schulte, Sebastian S. Meyer, Timon Kratzenberg, Simon Schog, Jesco M. Schönfelder, Silke Klein-Kormelink, Tim Blinzer, Matthias Karg, Walter Richtering, Marcel Rey

Abstract: Soft microgels are widely used as deformable building blocks for two-dimensional assemblies, yet solid substrates are often treated as passive supports after interfacial deposition. Here, we show that substrate wettability mechanically preconditions soft microgels before drying. Using in-liquid force-volume atomic force microscopy, we find that the same microgels adopt markedly different hydrated… ▽ More Soft microgels are widely used as deformable building blocks for two-dimensional assemblies, yet solid substrates are often treated as passive supports after interfacial deposition. Here, we show that substrate wettability mechanically preconditions soft microgels before drying. Using in-liquid force-volume atomic force microscopy, we find that the same microgels adopt markedly different hydrated shapes and stiffness profiles depending on substrate contact angle: hydrophobic substrates induce spreading, flattening, and internal stiffening, whereas hydrophilic substrates preserve taller, softer microgels with smaller contact areas. These single-microgel states can explain how Langmuir-Blodgett-deposited monolayers respond during drying. On hydrophilic substrates, the observed assemblies are consistent with soft and weakly immobilized microgels rearranging under immersion-capillary forces, producing distinct corona-corona and core-core contact states and an apparent isostructural transition. On hydrophobic substrates, the flattened and stiffened microgels are more strongly immobilized, likely suppressing capillary-driven rearrangements and largely preserving the transferred interfacial assembly structure. These findings establish substrate-controlled microgel mechanics as the missing link between interfacial self-assembly and the final structures observed after transfer and drying. △ Less

Submitted 31 July, 2026; originally announced July 2026.

Motional Kerr-Cat States of an Atom in an Optical Tweezer

Authors: Steven K. Pampel, Gur Lubin, Dawson P. Hewatt, Conall McCabe, Jaeyong Hwang, Sean R. Muleady, Tianrui Xu, Ana Maria Rey, Cindy A. Regal

Abstract: Schrödinger cat states - quantum superpositions of classically or macroscopically distinct states - constitute a powerful resource for quantum computing, enhanced metrology, and probing coherence on large scales. Encoding such states in the phase space of an oscillator requires a nonlinearity, typically inherited from an auxiliary degree of freedom such as atomic spin or a Josephson junction. Neut… ▽ More Schrödinger cat states - quantum superpositions of classically or macroscopically distinct states - constitute a powerful resource for quantum computing, enhanced metrology, and probing coherence on large scales. Encoding such states in the phase space of an oscillator requires a nonlinearity, typically inherited from an auxiliary degree of freedom such as atomic spin or a Josephson junction. Neutral atoms trapped in reconfigurable optical tweezer arrays - a leading platform for quantum science and computing - provide an intrinsic nonlinearity via the motion of a single atom in a tightly focused trap. However, this self-Kerr mechanism has not previously been exploited for cat-state generation, and remains largely unexplored as a resource for motional-state control. Here we realize Schrödinger cat states in the quantized motion of a single neutral atom trapped in an optical tweezer. By modulating the depth and position, we demonstrate parity control of both Kerr-cat and Fock states alongside tunable nonlinearity, establishing a spin- and species-independent framework for controlling motion. We further show that the cat-state encoding is intrinsically robust against trap-frequency fluctuations that otherwise limit the fidelity of direct Fock-state transitions. These results establish Kerr-based control of neutral-atom motion as a new paradigm for cat-state and bosonic-state engineering in optical tweezers, providing a route toward quantum-error-correcting codes such as grid states, and toward quantum-enhanced sensing with arrays of non-Gaussian states. △ Less

Submitted 20 July, 2026; originally announced July 2026.

Measurement and assignment of $\it{J}$ $\geq$ 10 rotational energy levels in the 9510 to 9810 cm$^{-1}$ and 6590 to 6900 cm$^{-1}$ ranges of methane using optical frequency comb double-resonance spectroscopy

Authors: Yuan Cao, Adrian Hjältén, Vinicius Silva de Oliveira, Isak Silander, Michael Rey, Kevin K. Lehmann, Aleksandra Foltynowicz

Abstract: Accurate models of high temperature methane spectra are needed in astrophysics. Previous measurements of methane hot-band transitions in the $\it{P}$6 $\leftarrow$ $\it{P}$2 polyad range have been limited to final rotational numbers of $\it{J}$ $\le$ 9, with theoretical predictions at higher $\it{J}$s remaining unvalidated. Here, we use optical-optical double resonance spectroscopy (OODR) with a 3… ▽ More Accurate models of high temperature methane spectra are needed in astrophysics. Previous measurements of methane hot-band transitions in the $\it{P}$6 $\leftarrow$ $\it{P}$2 polyad range have been limited to final rotational numbers of $\it{J}$ $\le$ 9, with theoretical predictions at higher $\it{J}$s remaining unvalidated. Here, we use optical-optical double resonance spectroscopy (OODR) with a 3.3 $μ$m narrow linewidth pump to excite the $ν$${_3}$ P(12, A${_1}$$^{(2)}$) methane transition ($\it{P}$2 $\leftarrow$ $\it{P}$0) and a cavity-enhanced frequency comb centered around 1.68 $μ$m to probe the sub-Doppler ladder-type ($\it{P}$6 $\leftarrow$ $\it{P}$2) and V-type ($\it{P}$4 $\leftarrow$ $\it{P}$0) transitions, as well as Doppler-broadened collision-induced four-level transitions ($\it{P}$6 $\leftarrow$ $\it{P}$2). 49 ladder-type transitions with final rotational states $\it{J}$ = 10-12 in the range of 9510 to 9810 cm$^{-1}$ (i.e., the $\it{P}$6 polyad) were assigned to effective Hamiltonian predictions and the ExoMol database, of which 6 reached vibrational states that had not been observed experimentally before. 19 sub-Doppler V-type transitions with final states $\it{J}$ = 11-13 in the range of 6590 to 6900 cm$^{-1}$ (i.e., the $\it{P}$4 polyad) were observed and assigned to the Hamiltonian and ExoMol, while only 2 of these V-type transitions could be unambiguously assigned to WKLMC and HITRAN line lists. 170 Doppler-broadened four-level double-resonance (4LDR) lines were observed, 7 of which were newly observed compared with our previous work when pumping transitions starting from the $\it{J}$ = 7 level in the ground state [Lehmann et al., J. Chem. Phys. 163, 144304 (2025)]. We could not assign these lines as they did not form combination differences with other observed 4LDR transitions. △ Less

Submitted 14 July, 2026; originally announced July 2026.

mitigating the overcooling problem with sink-based bursty star formation in a high-z dwarf galaxy

Authors: Cheonsu Kang, Taysun Kimm, Daniel Han, Maxime Rey, Fred Thompson, Martin P. Rey, Harley Katz

Abstract: Star formation is a fundamental driver of galaxy evolution, yet many galaxy formation models still fail to regulate it realistically, allowing gas to collapse too efficiently and overproduce stars. To investigate a possible solution to this overcooling problem, we perform cosmological zoom-in radiation-hydrodynamics simulations of a dark matter halo reaching $10^{10} M_\odot$ at $z=6$, adopting tw… ▽ More Star formation is a fundamental driver of galaxy evolution, yet many galaxy formation models still fail to regulate it realistically, allowing gas to collapse too efficiently and overproduce stars. To investigate a possible solution to this overcooling problem, we perform cosmological zoom-in radiation-hydrodynamics simulations of a dark matter halo reaching $10^{10} M_\odot$ at $z=6$, adopting two distinct star formation models: a Schmidt-type model, in which star formation criteria and efficiency per free-fall time are tied to local gravo-thermo-turbulent conditions, and a sink-based model, in which star formation is governed by local gas inflows. The sink-based model naturally produces bursty star formation through rapid accretion onto young sink particles embedded in strongly convergent gas flows. The resulting intense radiation ionizes and disperses star-forming clumps through photoionization heating before the first supernova explodes. Consequently, supernovae occur in lower-density environments, imparting greater terminal momentum and driving stronger galactic outflows. In contrast, star formation within individual gas clumps is less efficient in the Schmidt-type model, because individual star formation events locally modify cell conditions, temporarily suppressing subsequent star formation and lowering the degree of burstiness. Relative to the Schmidt-type model, the sink-based model yields a total stellar mass lower by a factor of $\sim3$ and a Lyman continuum escape fraction higher by a factor of $\sim10$ by $z=6$. The bursty model drives stronger metal-enriched outflows and suppresses excess central star formation, exhibiting better agreement with JWST observations in gas-phase metallicity and galaxy size. Our results suggest that bursty star formation is a key mechanism for enhancing feedback and alleviating the overcooling problem in galaxy formation simulations. △ Less

Submitted 9 July, 2026; originally announced July 2026.

Comments: 24 pages, 23 figures, submitted to A&A

Creating and Probing Spin-Squeezed States of Molecules

Authors: Connor M. Holland, Callum L. Welsh, Yukai Lu, David Wellnitz, Xing-Yan Chen, Ana Maria Rey, Lawrence W. Cheuk

Abstract: Polar molecules are a promising platform for quantum-enhanced sensing and precision tests of fundamental physics, owing to their strong long-range dipolar interactions, broad sensitivity to electromagnetic fields, and sensitivity to potential physics beyond the Standard Model. However, the creation of metrologically useful entangled states in molecular systems has remained elusive. Here, we report… ▽ More Polar molecules are a promising platform for quantum-enhanced sensing and precision tests of fundamental physics, owing to their strong long-range dipolar interactions, broad sensitivity to electromagnetic fields, and sensitivity to potential physics beyond the Standard Model. However, the creation of metrologically useful entangled states in molecular systems has remained elusive. Here, we report the first observation of a class of metrologically useful entangled states - spin-squeezed states - in polar CaF molecules trapped in an optical tweezer array. The spin degree of freedom is encoded in rotational levels which are directly coupled by dipolar exchange interactions. By harnessing appropriate dynamical decoupling schemes we observe up to 3.0(3)dB of metrological gain, (2.2(3)dB without measurement correction) from direct exchange interactions. Using Floquet engineering, we further realize richer Hamiltonians that preserve spin squeezing while enabling the development of longer-range quantum correlations. Using site- and spin-resolved measurements we demonstrate that these entangled states enhance sensitivity to both homogeneous and spatially varying fields, and reveal strong non-classical correlations, including bipartite entanglement and Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen steering. Finally, we transfer the spin-squeezed states into long-lived and non-interacting hyperfine states, where the metrological enhancement persists for up to 100ms. Our results establish molecular optical tweezer arrays as a scalable platform for generating, controlling, characterizing, and storing entangled states of molecules, opening new opportunities for quantum-enhanced sensing and precision tests of fundamental physics. △ Less

Submitted 1 June, 2026; originally announced June 2026.

Comments: main text: 8 pages, 4 figures; supplementary material: 18 pages, 8 figures, 4 tables

Dissipative generation of spin squeezing in the resolved vacuum Rabi splitting limit

Authors: Edwin Chaparro, Eric Yilun Song, Diego Barberena, James K. Thompson, Ana Maria Rey, Jeremy T. Young

Abstract: Harnessing dissipation in the presence of strong symmetries has recently emerged as a promising route for generating entanglement in atomic clocks. However, previous proposals relied on regimes where cavity photons can be adiabatically eliminated, significantly limiting their applicability to experimentally relevant cavity-QED regimes that lie in or near the resolved vacuum Rabi splitting regime.… ▽ More Harnessing dissipation in the presence of strong symmetries has recently emerged as a promising route for generating entanglement in atomic clocks. However, previous proposals relied on regimes where cavity photons can be adiabatically eliminated, significantly limiting their applicability to experimentally relevant cavity-QED regimes that lie in or near the resolved vacuum Rabi splitting regime. Here we show that symmetry-protected dissipative spin squeezing can be realized even when cavity photons actively participate in the dynamics, extending the experimental relevance of the protocol. We study a three-level ensemble of $^{87}\mathrm{Sr}$ atoms coupled to an optical cavity in the resolved vacuum Rabi splitting regime and demonstrate that, with smooth ramps of the drive amplitude and detunings, the driven-dissipative dynamics enters a stable low-photon regime in which nonadiabatic cavity excitations and sector-resolving photon leakage can be controlled. Within this low-photon operating window, sector-resolving photon leakage is suppressed and the sector-dependent geometric phase realizes effective one-axis twisting. At the end of the protocol the entanglement can also be efficiently transferred directly onto the long-lived clock states by turning the drive off. For experimentally realistic parameters, we theoretically show that more than $25\,\mathrm{dB}$ of squeezing can be generated for $10^5$ atoms, closely saturating the ideal one-axis twisting scaling $ξ_{\min}^2 \propto N^{-2/3}$. At fixed cooperativity, the optimized squeezing remains broadly comparable to the unresolved-regime implementation, while the resolved-regime implementation reaches comparable squeezing on a substantially shorter physical timescale. These results establish symmetry-protected dissipative dynamics as a practical route to beyond the standard-quantum-limit performance in optical-clock platforms. △ Less

Submitted 29 May, 2026; originally announced May 2026.

Comments: 29 pages, 10 figures

Physics-Modeled Neural Networks

Authors: Raul Felipe-Sosa, Angel Martin del Rey, Maria Flores Ceballos

Abstract: We introduce \emph{Dynamical Physics-Modeled Neural Networks} (DynPMNNs), a continuous-time deep learning architecture in which each hidden layer is defined as the solution of an ordinary differential equation. Unlike classical feed-forward networks, this approach replaces static activation functions with time-evolving dynamical systems, providing a biologically inspired interpretation of hidden-l… ▽ More We introduce \emph{Dynamical Physics-Modeled Neural Networks} (DynPMNNs), a continuous-time deep learning architecture in which each hidden layer is defined as the solution of an ordinary differential equation. Unlike classical feed-forward networks, this approach replaces static activation functions with time-evolving dynamical systems, providing a biologically inspired interpretation of hidden-layer behavior and enabling the integration of physically meaningful models. The framework is rigorously grounded in Reproducing Kernel Banach Spaces (RKBSs), allowing DynPMNNs to be characterized as finite-dimensional solutions of an abstract training problem and revealing structural connections with standard neural networks. We present a concrete implementation based on the FitzHugh--Nagumo model for neuronal activation, where numerical ODE solvers are embedded into the computational graph via Euler-type schemes. Both network weights and dynamical parameters are trained jointly. Through experiments on the California Housing dataset, we compare DynPMNNs with Neural ODEs (NODEs) and Closed-form Continuous-Time Networks (CfCs). Despite using fewer trainable parameters, DynPMNNs achieve competitive performance. These results position DynPMNNs as a principled bridge between dynamical systems and deep learning, with promising directions for further research in expressivity, stability, and physics-based modeling. △ Less

Submitted 5 May, 2026; originally announced May 2026.

Realizing multi-orbital Emery models with ultracold atoms

Authors: Conall McCabe, Jamie Boyd, Kaizhao Wang, Martin Lebrat, Cindy Regal, Adam Kaufman, Ana Maria Rey, Lukas Homeier

Abstract: Strongly-correlated electrons in transition-metal oxides give rise to intriguing emergent phenomena, including high-temperature superconductivity in cuprates. While simplified one-band Hubbard models capture some aspects, explicitly describing the interplay of copper and oxygen orbitals -- as in the three-band Emery model -- is essential to capture the full phenomenology of cuprates. Quantum simul… ▽ More Strongly-correlated electrons in transition-metal oxides give rise to intriguing emergent phenomena, including high-temperature superconductivity in cuprates. While simplified one-band Hubbard models capture some aspects, explicitly describing the interplay of copper and oxygen orbitals -- as in the three-band Emery model -- is essential to capture the full phenomenology of cuprates. Quantum simulators based on ultracold atoms offer a promising route to study such systems in a controlled setting, but realizing realistic multi-orbital Hubbard models remains challenging. Here we propose an optical superlattice architecture that implements the three-band Emery model with ultracold fermions. By combining lattice beams with controllable interference, we engineer orbital degrees of freedom that reproduce key features of the cuprate band structure, while enabling independent control of orbital-dependent interactions and charge-transfer energy. We show that single-particle quantum walks can benchmark the resulting tight-binding model. Using determinant quantum Monte Carlo, we further investigate thermodynamic properties in the undoped regime and find a finite-temperature metal-insulator crossover accompanied by the onset of antiferromagnetic correlations accessible in current experiments. Finally, we apply a Hamiltonian learning protocol enabling to infer effective single-band Hubbard models from experimental realizations of Emery models. Our results provide a practical pathway to simulate multi-orbital Hubbard physics with quantum gas microscopes. △ Less

Submitted 24 April, 2026; originally announced April 2026.

Comments: 8+3 pages, 5+5 figures

Light-propelled microparticles based on symmetry-broken refractive index profiles

Authors: Julian Jeggle, Matthias Rüschenbaum, Adrian Paskert, Ivan Kalthoff, Elena Vinnemeier, Jesco Schönfelder, Jörg Imbrock, Cornelia Denz, Marcel Rey, Raphael Wittkowski

Abstract: Active colloidal microparticles require reliable actuation to sustain directed motion. Light-based propulsion is particularly attractive as it provides persistent energy supply and enables direct spatiotemporal control. Here, we introduce 3D-printable particles with symmetry-broken refractive index profiles (SBRIP particles) that achieve propulsion through direct momentum transfer from asymmetric… ▽ More Active colloidal microparticles require reliable actuation to sustain directed motion. Light-based propulsion is particularly attractive as it provides persistent energy supply and enables direct spatiotemporal control. Here, we introduce 3D-printable particles with symmetry-broken refractive index profiles (SBRIP particles) that achieve propulsion through direct momentum transfer from asymmetric light refraction. Internal refractive-index gradients provide optical symmetry breaking independent of external shape, fundamentally decoupling propulsion from particle geometry. Geometrically symmetry-broken particles with a homogeneous refractive index are another special case, where propulsion originates from refractive contrast at the boundary instead of within the particle. Unlike conventional systems relying on absorption or reflection, this transparency-based mechanism minimizes heating and mitigates shadowing in bulk suspensions. We present a theoretical framework for refractive propulsion as well as numerical simulations of the SBRIP particles using raytracing and the finite volume method. This is complemented by experiments, validating the momentum transfer mechanism using particles with geometric symmetry breaking. The high transparency of our particles ensures deep light penetration, enabling the realization of volumetric active matter. This opens pathways toward adaptive nonlinear optical materials where light-driven particle reorganization modulates the local refractive index, establishing a dynamic feedback loop between the optical field and the material structure. △ Less

Submitted 16 April, 2026; originally announced April 2026.

Comments: 15 pages, 6 figures

Optical frequency comb Fourier transform spectroscopy of the CH$_2$$^{79}$Br$^{81}$Br, CH$_2$$^{79}$Br$_2$, and CH$_2$$^{81}$Br$_2$ isotopologues in the 1180-1210 cm$^{-1}$ region

Authors: Ibrahim Sadiek, Aleksandr A. Balashov, Adrian Hjältén, Michael Rey, Oleg Egorov, Aleksandra Foltynowicz

Abstract: Quantitative spectroscopic detection of dibromomethane, CH$_2$Br$_2$, for environmental monitoring, workplace safety, and exoplanetary studies is limited by the lack of accurate absorption cross-section data and rigorous spectroscopic models. We report the first high-resolution (6.3 MHz point spacing) absorption cross-section of CH$_2$Br$_2$ in the 1180-1210 cm$^{-1}$ region measured using optical… ▽ More Quantitative spectroscopic detection of dibromomethane, CH$_2$Br$_2$, for environmental monitoring, workplace safety, and exoplanetary studies is limited by the lack of accurate absorption cross-section data and rigorous spectroscopic models. We report the first high-resolution (6.3 MHz point spacing) absorption cross-section of CH$_2$Br$_2$ in the 1180-1210 cm$^{-1}$ region measured using optical frequency comb Fourier transform spectroscopy. This region is dominated by the strong CH$_2$ wagging ($ν$$_8$) fundamental vibration, which is about 50 times stronger than the fundamental C-H stretch around 3077 cm$^{-1}$. The measurements resolve isotopologue-specific rovibrational features of CH$_2$$^{79}$Br$^{81}$Br, CH$_2$$^{79}$Br$_2$, and CH$_2$$^{81}$Br$_2$, and we assign rovibrational transitions of the $ν$$_8$ fundamental and the overlapping $ν$$_4$+$ν$$_8$-$ν$$_4$ hot bands using two methods. First, an empirical non-linear least square fit implemented in PGOPHER provides high-precision line assignment and spectroscopic constants, including accurate band origins, rotational constants, and quartic centrifugal distortion parameters, for the three isotopologues, covering rotational levels up to K$_a$ = 25 and J = 144, with an average RMS residual of 0.00037 cm$^{-1}$ (11.1 MHz). Compared with previously reported band parameters retrieved from a fit to narrowband (1.78 cm$^{-1}$) supersonically cooled spectra (B. E. Brumfield et al., J. Mol. Spectrosc., 2011, 266, 57-62), our fit provides much improved global agreement between measured and simulated spectra. In parallel, an ab initio-based effective Hamiltonian approach was used to model the complete rovibrational polyads, including weak hot-band transitions and polyad interactions inaccessible to purely empirical fits, and provided the first ab initio-based line intensities of CH$_2$Br$_2$ in the 8 $μ$m spectral region. △ Less

Submitted 31 March, 2026; originally announced April 2026.

VINTERGATAN-GM: long-lived satellite planes induced by a massive GSE-like merger

Authors: R. Rodríguez-Cardoso, S. Roca-Fàbrega, Oscar Agertz, Jesus Gallego, Justin Read, Andrew Pontzen, Martin P. Rey, I. Santos-Santos, M. Gámez-Marín, Jess Kocher

Abstract: Satellite galaxies in the Local Group tend to be distributed in thin, planar configurations, with many sharing coherent orbital motion. Galaxy formation simulations in $Λ$CDM have historically struggled to produce similar structures, leading to the so-called "planes of satellites problem". In this work, we investigate whether the emergence of such structures is connected to the mass of a major mer… ▽ More Satellite galaxies in the Local Group tend to be distributed in thin, planar configurations, with many sharing coherent orbital motion. Galaxy formation simulations in $Λ$CDM have historically struggled to produce similar structures, leading to the so-called "planes of satellites problem". In this work, we investigate whether the emergence of such structures is connected to the mass of a major merger at $z\sim2$, analogous to the Gaia-Sausage-Enceladus (GSE) event in the Milky Way. We use the VINTERGATAN-GM suite of high-resolution zoom-in simulations, comprising five realizations of the same Milky Way-mass halo generated through targeted genetic modifications of a GSE progenitor. The GSE-like merger mass ratio is systematically varied from 1:10 to 1:2.1, while keeping the final dynamical mass and large-scale environment fixed. We find a clear and consistent trend: more massive GSE-like mergers lead to satellite populations that are both more planar and more kinematically coherent. In particular, simulations with merger mass ratios larger than 1:6 develop Kinematic Persistent Planes (KPPs), in which at least 40% of satellites co-orbit around a common axis over extended periods, comparable to those observed in the Milky Way. These structures arise when sufficiently massive mergers, accreted along the direction of maximum compression of the Lagrangian volume, produce flattened host halos with anisotropic velocity dispersions aligned with the merger direction. The merger aligns the host halo's minor axis with the direction of flattening of the surrounding cosmic web, and planes of satellites then emerge through two complementary processes: (i) satellites preferentially infall along the host's equatorial plane, and (ii) anisotropic dynamical friction in the non-spherical halo gradually reshapes their orbits toward this plane, generating coherent and long-lived planar configurations. △ Less

Submitted 20 March, 2026; originally announced March 2026.

Comments: 29 pages, 15(+5) figures and 3 tables. Submitted to A&A. Comments welcome!(Abstract shortened for arXiv, full version available in the manuscript)

ARCHITECTS II: Impact of subgrid physics on the observable properties of the circumgalactic medium

Authors: Maxime Rey, Jérémy Blaizot, Taysun Kimm, Joakim Rosdahl, Léo Michel-Dansac, Valentin Mauerhofer

Abstract: Galaxy evolution is driven by star formation and stellar feedback on scales unresolved by current high-resolution cosmological simulations, requiring robust subgrid models. However, these models remain degenerate, often calibrated primarily to match observed stellar masses. To explore these degeneracies, we conduct three state-of-the-art cosmological zoom-in simulations of the same galaxy, each in… ▽ More Galaxy evolution is driven by star formation and stellar feedback on scales unresolved by current high-resolution cosmological simulations, requiring robust subgrid models. However, these models remain degenerate, often calibrated primarily to match observed stellar masses. To explore these degeneracies, we conduct three state-of-the-art cosmological zoom-in simulations of the same galaxy, each incorporating different subgrid models: mechanical feedback, a combination of mechanical and thermal feedback, and delayed cooling. We compare their circumgalactic media (CGM) through quasar absorption sightlines of HI, MgII, CIV, and OVI. Our findings demonstrate that despite producing galaxies with the same stellar masses, the models lead to distinct feedback modes and CGM properties. Column densities and covering fractions serve as effective diagnostics of subgrid models, with all four ions providing strong constraints as they trace diverse gas phases, exhibit complementary spatial distributions, and originate from different mechanisms. Although all simulations bracket observed column density distributions, direct comparisons are limited by scarce detections and significant scatter in absorption strengths. Covering fractions of weak absorbers provides the most robust constraints. All models fail to reproduce HI and MgII covering fractions, and delayed cooling overproduces OVI covering fractions, while the other models underproduce them. The simulation including mechanical feedback reproduces the observed CIV covering fractions well, whereas the other models show slight offsets. We argue that this discrepancy is likely driven by unresolved thermal structures for HI and MgII, and insufficient metals for CIV and OVI, arising from missing physics such as AGNs or cosmic rays. △ Less

Submitted 13 February, 2026; originally announced February 2026.

Comments: 21 pages, 12 figures, submitted to MNRAS

ARCHITECTS I: Impact of subgrid physics on the simulated properties of the circumgalactic medium

Authors: Maxime Rey, Jérémy Blaizot, Taysun Kimm, Joakim Rosdahl, Léo Michel-Dansac

Abstract: Galaxy evolution is shaped by star formation and stellar feedback at scales unresolved by current high-resolution cosmological simulations. Precise subgrid models are thus necessary, and different approaches have been developed. However, they are degenerate and often primarily calibrated to reproduce stellar masses from observations. To explore these degeneracies, we perform three cosmological zoo… ▽ More Galaxy evolution is shaped by star formation and stellar feedback at scales unresolved by current high-resolution cosmological simulations. Precise subgrid models are thus necessary, and different approaches have been developed. However, they are degenerate and often primarily calibrated to reproduce stellar masses from observations. To explore these degeneracies, we perform three cosmological zoom-in radiation-hydrodynamics simulations of the same galaxy within a $5\times10^{11}\rm\ M_\odot$ dark matter halo at $z\sim1$, each with a different subgrid model: mechanical feedback, a combination of mechanical feedback and thermal feedback, and delayed cooling. We calibrate the simulations to match in stellar mass, isolating the effect of the models on the circumgalactic medium (CGM). Our findings demonstrate that despite producing galaxies with comparable stellar masses, the three models lead to distinct feedback modes, resulting in notable variations in the CGM properties. The delayed cooling run is dominated by ejective feedback and exhibits high burstiness, whereas mechanical and the hybrid models primarily feature preventive feedback, respectively acting at the galaxy and halo scales. Delayed cooling reduces the baryon mass to half the universal baryon fraction while mechanical feedback retains most baryons, with the hybrid model standing in between. Delayed cooling also ejects significantly more metals into the CGM than both other models. While for delayed cooling and mechanical feedback metals are almost evenly distributed in the CGM, they are concentrated around satellites in the hybrid model. These discrepancies emphasize the need to design an appropriate subgrid model to understand how stellar feedback regulates galaxy growth. △ Less

Submitted 13 February, 2026; originally announced February 2026.

Comments: 17 pages, 11 figures

Journal ref: Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 543, 12-27 (2025)

Quantum simulation of the Dicke model in a two-dimensional ion crystal: chaos, quantum thermalization, and revivals

Authors: Bryce Bullock, Sean R. Muleady, Jennifer F. Lilieholm, Yicheng Zhang, Arghavan Safavi-Naini, Robert J. Lewis-Swan, John J. Bollinger, Ana Maria Rey, Allison L. Carter

Abstract: Quantum many-body systems driven far from equilibrium can exhibit chaos, entanglement, and non-classical correlations, yet directly observing these phenomena in large, closed quantum systems remains challenging. Here we realize the Dicke model -- a fundamental description of light-matter interactions -- in a two-dimensional crystal of approximately 100 trapped ions. The ions' internal state is opt… ▽ More Quantum many-body systems driven far from equilibrium can exhibit chaos, entanglement, and non-classical correlations, yet directly observing these phenomena in large, closed quantum systems remains challenging. Here we realize the Dicke model -- a fundamental description of light-matter interactions -- in a two-dimensional crystal of approximately 100 trapped ions. The ions' internal state is optically coupled to the center of mass vibrational mode via an optical spin-dependent force, enabling unitary many-body dynamics beyond the mean-field and few-body limits. In the integrable regime, where the phonons can be adiabatically eliminated, we observe a dynamical phase transition between ferromagnetic to paramagnetic spin phases. In contrast, when the spins and phonons are strongly coupled, we observe clear signatures of non-integrable chaotic dynamics, including erratic phase-space trajectories and the exponential growth of excitations and entanglement quantified by the one-body Rényi entropy. By quenching from an unstable fixed point in the near-integrable regime, quantum noise can generate correlated spin-phonon excitations. Our numerical calculations, in clear agreement with experiment, reveal the generation of two-mode spin-phonon squeezing, 2.6 dB below the standard quantum limit (4.6 dB relative to the initial thermal state), followed by generalized vacuum Rabi collapses and revivals. Our results establish large ion crystals as scalable analog quantum simulators of non-equilibrium light-matter dynamics and provide a controlled platform for experimental studies of information scrambling and entanglement in closed many-body systems. △ Less

Submitted 17 February, 2026; v1 submitted 5 February, 2026; originally announced February 2026.

Comments: 8+11 pages, 5+8 figures

Statistical Predictions of the Accreted Stellar Halos around Milky Way-Like Galaxies

Authors: J. Sebastian Monzon, Frank C. van den Bosch, Martin P. Rey

Abstract: In the $Λ$CDM paradigm, stellar halos form through the accretion and disruption of satellite galaxies. We introduce new semi-analytic modeling within the SatGen framework to track the ex-situ stellar components of Milky Way--like galaxies across large ensembles of merger trees, enabling a statistical study of the stochastic nature of galaxy assembly. We find that accreted stellar halos are typical… ▽ More In the $Λ$CDM paradigm, stellar halos form through the accretion and disruption of satellite galaxies. We introduce new semi-analytic modeling within the SatGen framework to track the ex-situ stellar components of Milky Way--like galaxies across large ensembles of merger trees, enabling a statistical study of the stochastic nature of galaxy assembly. We find that accreted stellar halos are typically built by only a few progenitors and are highly sensitive to the fate of the most massive satellite, producing order-of-magnitude variations in accreted stellar halo mass even at fixed host halo mass. Different stellar components trace distinct phases of host halo growth: central and accreted stellar mass correlate most strongly with early assembly, while surviving satellites trace more recent accretion. Finally, using Random Forest Regression, we quantify how well observable galaxy properties can recover halo assembly histories, providing a framework for interpreting upcoming low-surface-brightness observations of stellar halos. △ Less

Submitted 7 April, 2026; v1 submitted 26 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026.

Comments: Published in the Open Journal of Astrophysics

Bidirectional teleportation using scrambling dynamics: a practical protocol

Authors: Amit Vikram, Edwin Chaparro, Muhammad Miskeen Khan, Andrew Lucas, Chris Akers, Ana Maria Rey

Abstract: We show that quantum information scrambling can enable a generic SWAP gate between collective degrees of freedom in systems without universal local control. Our protocol combines the Hayden-Preskill recovery scheme, associated with the black hole information paradox, with quantum teleportation and runs them in parallel and in opposite directions, enabling bidirectional exchange of quantum states t… ▽ More We show that quantum information scrambling can enable a generic SWAP gate between collective degrees of freedom in systems without universal local control. Our protocol combines the Hayden-Preskill recovery scheme, associated with the black hole information paradox, with quantum teleportation and runs them in parallel and in opposite directions, enabling bidirectional exchange of quantum states through global interactions alone. This approach cleanly distinguishes the roles of information spreading, entanglement, and chaos for enabling both coherent state transfer and recovery. We propose an experimental realization using the Dicke model, which can be realized in cavity-QED and trapped-ion platforms, highlighting the utility of holography in designing practical quantum gates. △ Less

Submitted 21 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026.

Comments: 9+26 pages, 4+7 figures

Many-Body Effects in Dark-State Laser Cooling

Authors: Muhammad Miskeen Khan, David Wellnitz, Bhuvanesh Sundar, Haoqing Zhang, Allison Carter, John J. Bollinger, Athreya Shankar, Ana Maria Rey

Abstract: We develop a unified many-body theory of two-photon dark-state laser cooling, the workhorse for preparing trapped ions close to their motional quantum ground state. For ions with a $Λ$ level structure, driven by Raman lasers, we identify an ion-number-dependent crossover between weak and strong coupling where both the cooling rate and final temperature are simultaneously optimized. We obtain simpl… ▽ More We develop a unified many-body theory of two-photon dark-state laser cooling, the workhorse for preparing trapped ions close to their motional quantum ground state. For ions with a $Λ$ level structure, driven by Raman lasers, we identify an ion-number-dependent crossover between weak and strong coupling where both the cooling rate and final temperature are simultaneously optimized. We obtain simple analytic results in both extremes: In the weak coupling limit, we show a Lorentzian spin-absorption spectrum determines the cooling rate and final occupation of the motional state, which are both independent of the number of ions. We also highlight the benefit of including an additional spin dependent force in this case. In the strong coupling regime, our theory reveals the role of collective dynamics arising from phonon exchange between dark and bright states, allowing us to explain the enhancement of the cooling rate with increasing ion number. Our analytic results agree closely with exact numerical simulations and provide experimentally accessible guidelines for optimizing cooling in large ion crystals, a key step toward scalable, high-fidelity trapped-ion quantum technologies. △ Less

Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026.

Comments: 22 pages, 10 figures

Simulation of topological superconductors and their competing orders using photon-mediated interactions

Authors: Anjun Chu, Joyce Kwan, Eric Yilun Song, Seth Hew Peng Chew, James K. Thompson, Ana Maria Rey

Abstract: Realizing and controlling the unconventional pairing featured by topological superconductors remains a central challenge. We introduce a cavity QED quantum simulator that engineers competing chiral $p_x+ip_y$ and $d_{x^2-y^2}+id_{xy}$ orders by tailoring cavity-mediated couplings between atomic pseudospins that emulate momentum-dependent pairing channels. The desired spatially inhomogeneous cavity… ▽ More Realizing and controlling the unconventional pairing featured by topological superconductors remains a central challenge. We introduce a cavity QED quantum simulator that engineers competing chiral $p_x+ip_y$ and $d_{x^2-y^2}+id_{xy}$ orders by tailoring cavity-mediated couplings between atomic pseudospins that emulate momentum-dependent pairing channels. The desired spatially inhomogeneous cavity-mediated couplings can be engineered in a 2D optical lattice using incommensurate cavity-lattice wavelengths naturally occurring in cavity QED systems. This minimal and fully tunable platform enables controlled state preparation and continuous measurement of superconducting order parameters, revealing phases in both equilibrium and sudden-quench settings with a single dominant pairing channel, as well as coexistence regimes with competing pairing channels. Crucially, our implementation allows direct observation of topological transitions in and out of equilibrium, providing a powerful route to the quantum simulation of competing topological superconducting phases that remain elusive in solid-state and ultracold-atom systems. △ Less

Submitted 19 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025.

Comments: 11+12 pages, 5+5 figures

Hybrid qubit-oscillator module from motional states of two interacting atoms

Authors: Jaeyong Hwang, Tianrui Xu, Sean R. Muleady, Steven K. Pampel, Gur Lubin, Dawson P. Hewatt, Cindy A. Regal, Ana Maria Rey

Abstract: We propose a qubit-oscillator platform based on the motional states of two interacting atoms in an optical tweezer. By stroboscopically modulating an engineered trap with tunable anharmonicity, we implement a complete set of bosonic operations and their qubit-controlled counterparts with high fidelity. This motional control enables accurate detection of magnetic dipolar interactions with $\sim10$… ▽ More We propose a qubit-oscillator platform based on the motional states of two interacting atoms in an optical tweezer. By stroboscopically modulating an engineered trap with tunable anharmonicity, we implement a complete set of bosonic operations and their qubit-controlled counterparts with high fidelity. This motional control enables accurate detection of magnetic dipolar interactions with $\sim10$ Hz sensitivity in one second, reaching sub-Hz resolution within a few minutes in a $20\times20$ tweezer array under realistic experimental imperfections. Our approach establishes a versatile platform for motional quantum control of two atoms, with applications to spin-boson physics and precision sensing of interaction potentials and trapping environments. △ Less

Submitted 17 July, 2026; v1 submitted 6 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025.

Collective three-body interactions enable a robust quantum speedup

Authors: Haoqing Zhang, Anjun Chu, Chengyi Luo, Chitose Maruko, Eliot A. Bohr, James K. Thompson, Ana Maria Rey

Abstract: We show that collective three-body interactions (3BIs), implementable with $N$ atoms loaded inside an optical cavity, offer a significant advantage for preparing complex multipartite entangled states. Firstly, they enable a speedup of order $\sim N$ in preparing generalized Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger (GHZ) states, outperforming conventional methods based on all-to-all two-body Ising interactions.… ▽ More We show that collective three-body interactions (3BIs), implementable with $N$ atoms loaded inside an optical cavity, offer a significant advantage for preparing complex multipartite entangled states. Firstly, they enable a speedup of order $\sim N$ in preparing generalized Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger (GHZ) states, outperforming conventional methods based on all-to-all two-body Ising interactions. Secondly, they saturate the Heisenberg bound in phase estimation tasks using a time-reversal protocol realized through simple rotations and followed by experimentally accessible collective spin measurements. Lastly, compared with two-body interactions (2BIs), in the presence of cavity losses and single particle decoherence, 3BIs feature a high gain in sensitivity for moderate atom numbers and in large ensembles a fast entanglement generation despite constraints in parameter regimes where they are implementable. △ Less

Submitted 5 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025.

Comments: 8+8 pages, 7+5 figures

Measurement and assignment of E-symmetry states in the 6010-6110 cm$^{-1}$ and 8940-9150 cm$^{-1}$ ranges of methane using optical frequency comb double-resonance spectroscopy

Authors: Adrian Hjältén, Vinicius Silva de Oliveira, Michael Rey, Isak Silander, Kevin K. Lehmann, Aleksandra Foltynowicz

Abstract: We use sub-Doppler optical-optical double-resonance (OODR) spectroscopy with a 3.3 $μ$m single-frequency pump and a cavity-enhanced 1.65 $μ$m comb probe to measure 33 ladder-type (3$ν$${_3}$ ${\leftarrow}$ $ν$${_3}$) and 8 V-type (2$ν$${_3}$) transitions in the 5880-6090 cm$^{-1}$ range of methane, reaching states with rotational E symmetry in the region of the P6 and P4 polyads, respectively. We… ▽ More We use sub-Doppler optical-optical double-resonance (OODR) spectroscopy with a 3.3 $μ$m single-frequency pump and a cavity-enhanced 1.65 $μ$m comb probe to measure 33 ladder-type (3$ν$${_3}$ ${\leftarrow}$ $ν$${_3}$) and 8 V-type (2$ν$${_3}$) transitions in the 5880-6090 cm$^{-1}$ range of methane, reaching states with rotational E symmetry in the region of the P6 and P4 polyads, respectively. We assign the ladder-type transitions using new Hamiltonian predictions and the ExoMol line list, and the V-type transitions using the new Hamiltonian, ExoMol, HITRAN2020, and the WKLMC line lists. While 7 of the states in the 3$ν$${_3}$ range have been previously observed either in earlier OODR work (without cavity enhancement) with 1.5 MHz accuracy or in FTIR measurements of cold bands with 150 MHz resolution, the states reported here have uncertainties down to 150 kHz (5 $\times$ 10$^{-6}$ cm$^{-1}$). The E-symmetry states exhibit first-order Stark splitting, which will be reported in our future work. △ Less

Submitted 5 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025.

Journal ref: J. Quant. Spectr. Radiat. Transfer 353, 109831 (2026)

The HITRAN2024 methane update

Authors: T. Bertin, I. E. Gordon, R. J. Hargreaves, J. Tennyson, S. N. Yurchenko, K. Kefala, V. Boudon, C. Richard, A. V. Nikitin, V. G. Tyuterev, M. Rey, M. Birk, G. Wagner, K. Sung, B. P. Coy, W. Broussard, G. C. Toon, A. A. Rodina, E. Starikova, A. Campargue, Z. D. Reed, J. T. Hodges, Y. Tan, N. A. Malarich, G. B. Rieker

Abstract: Spectroscopic parameters of methane from many different studies were gathered to improve the HITRAN database towards its 2024 version. After a validation process using high-resolution FTS and CRDS spectra, about 80,000 lines of the four most abundant isotopologues were replaced from the dyad to the triacontad regions. These changes amount to 51,000 transition wavenumbers, 18,000 line intensities,… ▽ More Spectroscopic parameters of methane from many different studies were gathered to improve the HITRAN database towards its 2024 version. After a validation process using high-resolution FTS and CRDS spectra, about 80,000 lines of the four most abundant isotopologues were replaced from the dyad to the triacontad regions. These changes amount to 51,000 transition wavenumbers, 18,000 line intensities, 33,000 pressure-broadening half-widths, and 3300 assignments. 44,000 new lines were added with 16,000 old lines removed, extending the database from 12,000 cm$^{-1}$ up to 14,000 cm$^{-1}$, and covering some gaps. A greater focus was brought on the pentad, octad, and tetradecad regions, targeted by several remote sensing instruments. In these regions, comparisons of spectral fits from multiple line lists were performed, taking only the parameters that provide best fit for each line. In the $ν_3$ band, in addition to replacing the previous values, speed-independent pressure broadening parameters of $^{12}$CH$_4$ were gathered and used to fit Padé-approximant functions. These functions then replaced any outdated experimental data in $ν_3$, missing data in the new lines, as well as the values that were determined to be outside their physical boundaries. The CH$_3$D broadening parameters were replaced in the same manner, for missing and low or high values, using a semi-empirical formula instead. △ Less

Submitted 12 January, 2026; v1 submitted 26 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025.

Comments: Added back a missing reference in the summary table from the accepted version of Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer (JQSRT), November 2025

Journal ref: Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer, Volume 349, February 2026, 109736

Acoustic neural networks: Identifying design principles and exploring physical feasibility

Authors: Ivan Kalthoff, Marcel Rey, Raphael Wittkowski

Abstract: Wave-guide-based physical systems provide a promising route toward energy-efficient analog computing beyond traditional electronics. Within this landscape, acoustic neural networks represent a promising approach for achieving low-power computation in environments where electronics are inefficient or limited, yet their systematic design has remained largely unexplored. Here we introduce a framework… ▽ More Wave-guide-based physical systems provide a promising route toward energy-efficient analog computing beyond traditional electronics. Within this landscape, acoustic neural networks represent a promising approach for achieving low-power computation in environments where electronics are inefficient or limited, yet their systematic design has remained largely unexplored. Here we introduce a framework for designing and simulating acoustic neural networks, which perform computation through the propagation of sound waves. Using a digital-twin approach, we train conventional neural network architectures under physically motivated constraints including non-negative signals and weights, the absence of bias terms, and nonlinearities compatible with intensity-based, non-negative acoustic signals. Our work provides a general framework for acoustic neural networks that connects learnable network components directly to physically measurable acoustic properties, enabling the systematic design of realizable acoustic computing systems. We demonstrate that constrained recurrent and hierarchical architectures can perform accurate speech classification, and we propose the SincHSRNN, a hybrid model that combines learnable acoustic bandpass filters with hierarchical temporal processing. The SincHSRNN achieves up to 95% accuracy on the AudioMNIST dataset while remaining compatible with passive acoustic components. Beyond computational performance, the learned parameters correspond to measurable material and geometric properties such as attenuation and transmission. Our results establish general design principles for physically realizable acoustic neural networks and outline a pathway toward low-power, wave-based neural computing. △ Less

Submitted 26 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025.

Comments: 13 pages, 4 figures, 8 tables

Time complexity in preparing metrologically useful quantum states

Authors: Carla M. Quispe Flores, Raphael Kaubruegger, Minh C. Tran, Xun Gao, Ana Maria Rey, Zhexuan Gong

Abstract: We investigate the fundamental time complexity, as constrained by Lieb-Robinson bounds, for preparing entangled states useful in quantum metrology. We relate the minimum time to the Quantum Fisher Information ($F_Q$) for a system of $N$ quantum spins on a $d$-dimensional lattice with $1/r^α$ interactions with $r$ being the distance between two interacting spins. We focus on states with… ▽ More We investigate the fundamental time complexity, as constrained by Lieb-Robinson bounds, for preparing entangled states useful in quantum metrology. We relate the minimum time to the Quantum Fisher Information ($F_Q$) for a system of $N$ quantum spins on a $d$-dimensional lattice with $1/r^α$ interactions with $r$ being the distance between two interacting spins. We focus on states with $F_Q \sim N^{1+γ}$ where $γ\in (0,1]$, i.e., scaling from the standard quantum limit to the Heisenberg limit. For short-range interactions ($α> 2d+1$), we prove the minimum time $t$ scales as $t \gtrsim L^γ$, where $L \sim N^{1/d}$. For long-range interactions, we find a hierarchy of possible speedups: $t \gtrsim L^{γ(α-2d)}$ for $2d < α< 2d+1$, $t \gtrsim \log L$ for $(2-γ)d < α< 2d$, and $t$ may even vanish algebraically in $1/L$ for $α< (2-γ)d$. These bounds extend to the minimum circuit depth required for state preparation, assuming two-qubit gate speeds scale as $1/r^α$. We further show that these bounds are saturable, up to sub-polynomial corrections, for all $α$ at the Heisenberg limit ($γ=1$) and for $α> (2-γ)d$ when $γ<1$. Our results establish a benchmark for the time-optimality of protocols that prepare metrologically useful quantum states. △ Less

Submitted 18 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025.

Comments: 9 pages, 2 figures

EDGE-INFERNO: How chemical enrichment assumptions impact the individual stars of a simulated ultra-faint dwarf galaxy

Authors: Eric P. Andersson, Martin P. Rey, Robert M. Yates, Justin I. Read, Oscar Agertz, Alexander P. Ji, Jennifer Mead, Kaley Brauer, Mordecai-Mark Mac Low

Abstract: The chemical abundances of stars in galaxies are a fossil record of the star formation and stellar evolution processes that regulate galaxy formation, including the stellar initial mass function, the fraction and timing of type Ia supernovae (SNeIa), and nucleosynthesis inside massive stars. In this paper, we systematically explore uncertainties associated with modeling chemical enrichment in dwar… ▽ More The chemical abundances of stars in galaxies are a fossil record of the star formation and stellar evolution processes that regulate galaxy formation, including the stellar initial mass function, the fraction and timing of type Ia supernovae (SNeIa), and nucleosynthesis inside massive stars. In this paper, we systematically explore uncertainties associated with modeling chemical enrichment in dwarf galaxies. We repeatedly simulate a single EDGE-INFERNO dwarf ($M_{\star} \approx 10^5 \, M_{\odot}$), varying the chemical yields of massive stars, the timing and yields of SNeIa, and the intrinsic stochasticity that arises from sampling individual stars and galaxy formation chaoticity. All simulations are high-resolution (3.6 pc), cosmological zoom-in hydrodynamical simulations that track the stellar evolution of all individual stars with masses $>0.5\,{\rm M}_{\odot}$. We find that variations in SNIa assumptions make the largest difference in mean abundance ratios and [Fe/H], highlighting the importance of detailed SNIa modeling even in such low-mass reionization-limited galaxies. In contrast, different massive star yields, accounting (or not) for stellar rotation, result in mean abundances comparable to those arising from stochasticity. Nonetheless, they significantly affect the shape of abundance trends with [Fe/H], for example, through the existence (or not) of a bimodality in the [X/Fe] - [Fe/H] planes, particularly in [Al/Fe]. Finally, we find that the variance arising from random sampling severely limits the interpretation of single galaxies. Our analysis showcases the power of star-by-star cosmological models to unpick how both systematic uncertainties (e.g., assumptions in low-metallicity chemical enrichment) and statistical uncertainties (e.g., averaging over enough galaxies and stars within a galaxy) affect the interpretation of chemical observables in ultra-faint dwarf galaxies. △ Less

Submitted 7 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025.

Comments: Submitted to Astronomy & Astrophysics

Journal ref: A&A 707, A112 (2026)

Uncertainty evaluation of segmentation models for Earth observation

Authors: Melanie Rey, Andriy Mnih, Maxim Neumann, Matt Overlan, Drew Purves

Abstract: This paper investigates methods for estimating uncertainty in semantic segmentation predictions derived from satellite imagery. Estimating uncertainty for segmentation presents unique challenges compared to standard image classification, requiring scalable methods producing per-pixel estimates. While most research on this topic has focused on scene understanding or medical imaging, this work bench… ▽ More This paper investigates methods for estimating uncertainty in semantic segmentation predictions derived from satellite imagery. Estimating uncertainty for segmentation presents unique challenges compared to standard image classification, requiring scalable methods producing per-pixel estimates. While most research on this topic has focused on scene understanding or medical imaging, this work benchmarks existing methods specifically for remote sensing and Earth observation applications. Our evaluation focuses on the practical utility of uncertainty measures, testing their ability to identify prediction errors and noise-corrupted input image regions. Experiments are conducted on two remote sensing datasets, PASTIS and ForTy, selected for their differences in scale, geographic coverage, and label confidence. We perform an extensive evaluation featuring several models, such as Stochastic Segmentation Networks and ensembles, in combination with a number of neural architectures and uncertainty metrics. We make a number of practical recommendations based on our findings. △ Less

Submitted 22 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025.

Prethermal gauge structure and surface growth in $\mathbb{Z}_2$ lattice gauge theories

Authors: Lukas Homeier, Andrea Pizzi, Hongzheng Zhao, Jad C. Halimeh, Fabian Grusdt, Ana Maria Rey

Abstract: Universal aspects of thermalization in interacting many-body systems are challenging to derive microscopically, especially in kinetically constrained models, yet their numerical study beyond $(1+1)$D remains notoriously difficult. Here, we numerically study the mean-field dynamics of a $(2+1)$D spin system with thousands of spins and show that experimentally-feasible two-body Ising interactions ca… ▽ More Universal aspects of thermalization in interacting many-body systems are challenging to derive microscopically, especially in kinetically constrained models, yet their numerical study beyond $(1+1)$D remains notoriously difficult. Here, we numerically study the mean-field dynamics of a $(2+1)$D spin system with thousands of spins and show that experimentally-feasible two-body Ising interactions can stabilize a prethermal $\mathbb{Z}_2$ lattice gauge structure with dynamical matter, manifested by a separation of timescales with a stable gauge-invariant plateau. Eventually, the metastable prethermal $\mathbb{Z}_2$ gauge structure breaks down via a proliferation of Gauss' law defects, similar to bubble formation in false vacuum decay. In this regime, we discover spatio-temporal correlations described by a non-linear surface growth consistent with the $(1+1)$D Kardar-Parisi-Zhang (KPZ) universality class, revealing a previously hidden feature in the thermalization of multi-point correlators. We benchmark our results in small systems against semi-classical discrete time Wigner approximation (DTWA) and exact diagonalization (ED), where the breakdown of DTWA signals the emergence of an extensive number of local symmetries that strongly influence the thermalization pathway. Our model provides a testbed for quantum simulators and is directly implementable in large-scale arrays of Rydberg atoms. △ Less

Submitted 16 March, 2026; v1 submitted 14 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025.

Comments: 4+2 pages, 4+2 figures

Generating Entangled Steady States in Multistable Open Quantum Systems via Initial State Control

Authors: Diego Fallas Padilla, Raphael Kaubruegger, Adrianna Gillman, Stephen Becker, Ana Maria Rey

Abstract: Entanglement underpins the power of quantum technologies, yet it is fragile and typically destroyed by dissipation. Paradoxically, the same dissipation, when carefully engineered, can drive a system toward robust entangled steady states. However, this engineering task is nontrivial, as dissipative many-body systems are complex, particularly when they support multiple steady states. Here, we derive… ▽ More Entanglement underpins the power of quantum technologies, yet it is fragile and typically destroyed by dissipation. Paradoxically, the same dissipation, when carefully engineered, can drive a system toward robust entangled steady states. However, this engineering task is nontrivial, as dissipative many-body systems are complex, particularly when they support multiple steady states. Here, we derive analytic expressions that predict how the steady state of a system evolving under a Lindblad equation depends on the initial state, without requiring integration of the dynamics. These results extend the frameworks developed in Refs. [Phys. Rev. A 89, 022118 (2014) and Phys. Rev. X 6, 041031 (2016)], showing that while the steady-state manifold is determined by the Liouvillian kernel, the weights within it depend on both the Liouvillian and the initial state. We identify a special class of Liouvillians for which the steady state depends only on the initial overlap with the kernel. Our framework provides analytical insight and a computationally efficient tool for predicting steady states in open quantum systems. As an application, we propose schemes to generate metrologically useful entangled steady states in spin ensembles via balanced collective decay. △ Less

Submitted 2 February, 2026; v1 submitted 8 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025.

Comments: 10 pages, 6 figures. Supplemental material: 9 pages, 3 figures

The radial acceleration relation at the EDGE of galaxy formation: testing its universality in low-mass dwarf galaxies

Authors: Mariana P. Júlio, Justin I. Read, Marcel S. Pawlowski, Pengfei Li, Daniel Vaz, Jarle Brinchmann, Martin P. Rey, Oscar Agertz, Tom Holmes

Abstract: A tight correlation between the baryonic and observed acceleration of galaxies has been reported over a wide range of mass ($10^8 < M_{\rm bar}/{\rm M}_\odot < 10^{11}$) - the Radial Acceleration Relation (RAR). This has been interpreted as evidence that dark matter is actually a manifestation of some modified weak-field gravity theory. In this paper, we study the radially resolved RAR of 12 nearb… ▽ More A tight correlation between the baryonic and observed acceleration of galaxies has been reported over a wide range of mass ($10^8 < M_{\rm bar}/{\rm M}_\odot < 10^{11}$) - the Radial Acceleration Relation (RAR). This has been interpreted as evidence that dark matter is actually a manifestation of some modified weak-field gravity theory. In this paper, we study the radially resolved RAR of 12 nearby dwarf galaxies, with baryonic masses in the range $10^4 < M_{\rm bar}/{\rm M}_\odot < 10^{7.5}$, using a combination of literature data and data from the MUSE-Faint survey. We use stellar line-of-sight velocities and the Jeans modelling code GravSphere to infer the mass distributions of these galaxies, allowing us to compute the RAR. We compare the results with the EDGE simulations of isolated dwarf galaxies with similar stellar masses in a $Λ$CDM cosmology. We find that most of the observed dwarf galaxies lie systematically above the low-mass extrapolation of the RAR. Each galaxy traces a locus in the RAR space that can have a multi-valued observed acceleration for a given baryonic acceleration, while there is significant scatter from galaxy to galaxy. Our results indicate that the RAR does not apply to low-mass dwarf galaxies and that the inferred baryonic acceleration of these dwarfs does not contain enough information, on its own, to derive the observed acceleration. The simulated EDGE dwarfs behave similarly to the real data, lying systematically above the extrapolated RAR. We show that, in the context of modified weak-field gravity theories, these results cannot be explained by differential tidal forces from the Milky Way, nor by the galaxies being far from dynamical equilibrium, since none of the galaxies in our sample seems to experience strong tides. As such, our results provide further evidence for the need for invisible dark matter in the smallest dwarf galaxies. △ Less

Submitted 8 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025.

Comments: Accepted for publication in A&A on 03-10-2025. 16 pages, 12 figures, 3 tables

Journal ref: A&A 704, A330 (2025)

MEGATRON: The environments of Population III stars at Cosmic Dawn and their connection to present day galaxies

Authors: Anatole Storck, Harley Katz, Julien Devriendt, Adrianne Slyz, Corentin Cadiou, Nicholas Choustikov, Martin P. Rey, Aayush Saxena, Oscar Agertz, Taysun Kimm

Abstract: We present results of Pop. III formation in the MEGATRON suite of simulations, which self-consistently follows radiation and non-equilibrium chemistry, and resolves gas at near-pc resolution of a Milky Way-mass halo at Cosmic Dawn. While the very first Pop. III stars form in halos with masses well below the atomic cooling limit, whose cooling is dominated by molecular hydrogen, the majority of Pop… ▽ More We present results of Pop. III formation in the MEGATRON suite of simulations, which self-consistently follows radiation and non-equilibrium chemistry, and resolves gas at near-pc resolution of a Milky Way-mass halo at Cosmic Dawn. While the very first Pop. III stars form in halos with masses well below the atomic cooling limit, whose cooling is dominated by molecular hydrogen, the majority of Pop. III stars form in more massive systems above the $10^4$~K atomic cooling threshold. The shift in cooling regime of halos hosting new Pop. III stars occurs within $100$ Myr of the first Pop. III star as the Lyman-Werner (LW) background rapidly increases to $10^{-21}\,\rm erg\,s^{-1}\,cm^{-2}\,Hz^{-1}\,sr^{-1}$. We find that the global Pop. III star formation rate stabilizes to a value of $10^{-3}\,\rm M_\odot\,yr^{-1}$ at $z=20$. Among the three processes that quench Pop. III star formation in mini-halos, the LW background, gas starvation, and external chemical enrichment, the LW background is most important. A small fraction of haloes undergo multiple episodes of Pop. III star formation when the earlier forming stars all directly collapse to black holes. If the halos become massive enough, they can form up to $\sim100$ Pop. III stars in a single burst, which may be observable by JWST with moderate gravitational lensing. Pop. III stars form at a wide range of distances from UV-bright galaxies, with only $0.06\%$ of Pop. III stars forming within the virial radius of galaxies with $M_{\rm UV} < -17$. Finally, by tracking Pop. III star remnants down to $z=0$, we find that $75-80\,$% reside in the stellar halo of our simulated Milky Way analogue, while the remainder are gravitationally bound to lower-mass systems, including satellite halos. △ Less

Submitted 19 March, 2026; v1 submitted 8 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025.

Comments: 15 pages, 11 figures, Accepted for publication in MNRAS

Journal ref: Mon Not R Astron Soc (2026)

MEGATRON: Disentangling Physical Processes and Observational Bias in the Multi-Phase ISM of High-Redshift Galaxies

Authors: Nicholas Choustikov, Harley Katz, Alex J. Cameron, Aayush Saxena, Julien Devriendt, Adrianne Slyz, Martin P. Rey, Corentin Cadiou, Jeremy Blaizot, Taysun Kimm, Isaac Laseter, Kosei Matsumoto, Joki Rosdahl

Abstract: Now detected out to redshifts of $z\sim 14.5$, the rest-frame ultraviolet and optical spectra of galaxies encode numerous physical properties of the interstellar medium (ISM). Accurately extracting these properties from spectra remains a key challenge that numerical simulations are uniquely suited to address. We present a study of the observed ISM of galaxies in MEGATRON: a suite of cosmological r… ▽ More Now detected out to redshifts of $z\sim 14.5$, the rest-frame ultraviolet and optical spectra of galaxies encode numerous physical properties of the interstellar medium (ISM). Accurately extracting these properties from spectra remains a key challenge that numerical simulations are uniquely suited to address. We present a study of the observed ISM of galaxies in MEGATRON: a suite of cosmological radiation hydrodynamics simulations coupled to on-the-fly non-equilibrium thermochemistry, with multiple prescriptions for star formation/feedback and parsec-scale resolution; capable of directly predicting spectroscopic properties of early galaxies. We find that irrespective of feedback physics used, the ISM of high-redshift galaxies is denser, less metal enriched, and subject to higher ionization parameters and radiation fields compared to similar mass galaxies in the local Universe -- in agreement with interpretations of JWST observations. Using common observational techniques to infer bulk galaxy properties, we find that ISM gas density controls the slope of the mass-metallicity relation. Similarly, at the densities reached in some high-redshift galaxies, O32 becomes a density tracer rather than one of ionization parameter. This motivates the use of other line ratios like C43 and N43 to infer the ionization state of the gas. Finally, various feedback models populate different regions of strong-line diagnostic diagrams as the line ratios are sensitive to the feedback-modulated density-temperature structure of the ISM. Therefore, observed strong-line diagnostics can provide a strong constraint on the underlying physics of star formation and feedback in the high-redshift Universe. △ Less

Submitted 20 February, 2026; v1 submitted 7 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025.

Comments: 22 pages, 14 figures, 1 table. Published in the Open Journal of Astrophysics

MEGATRON: the impact of non-equilibrium effects and local radiation fields on the circumgalactic medium at cosmic noon

Authors: Corentin Cadiou, Harley Katz, Martin P. Rey, Oscar Agertz, Jeremy Blaizot, Alex J. Cameron, Nicholas Choustikov, Julien Devriendt, Uliana Hauk, Gareth C. Jones, Taysun Kimm, Isaac Laseter, Sergio Martin-Alvarez, Kosei Matsumoto, Camilla T. Nyhagen, Autumn Pearce, Francisco Rodríguez Montero, Joki Rosdahl, Víctor Rufo Pastor, Mahsa Sanati, Aayush Saxena, Adrianne Slyz, Richard Stiskalek, Anatole Storck, Wonjae Yee

Abstract: We present three cosmological radiation-hydrodynamic zoom simulations of the progenitor of a Milky Way-mass galaxy from the MEGATRON suite. The simulations combine on-the-fly radiative transfer with a detailed non-equilibrium thermochemical network (81 ions and molecules), resolving the cold and warm gas in the circumgalactic medium (CGM) on spatial scales down to 20 pc and on average 200 pc at co… ▽ More We present three cosmological radiation-hydrodynamic zoom simulations of the progenitor of a Milky Way-mass galaxy from the MEGATRON suite. The simulations combine on-the-fly radiative transfer with a detailed non-equilibrium thermochemical network (81 ions and molecules), resolving the cold and warm gas in the circumgalactic medium (CGM) on spatial scales down to 20 pc and on average 200 pc at cosmic noon. Comparing our full non-equilibrium calculation with local radiation to traditional post-processed photoionization equilibrium (PIE) models assuming a uniform UV background (UVB), we find that non-equilibrium physics and local radiation fields fundamentally impact the thermochemistry of the CGM. Recombination lags and local radiation anisotropy shift ions away from their PIE+UVB values and modify covering fractions (for example, HI damped Ly$α$ absorbers differ by up to 40%). In addition, a resolution study with cooling-length refinement allows us to double the resolution in the cold and warm CGM gas, reaching 120 pc on average. When refining on cooling length, the mass of the lightest cold clumps decreases tenfold to $\approx 10^4\,M_\odot$, their boundary layers develop sharper ion stratification, and the warm gas is better resolved, boosting the abundance of warm gas tracers such as CIV and OIII. Together, these results demonstrate that non-equilibrium thermochemistry coupled to radiative transfer, combined with physically motivated resolution criteria, is essential to predict circumgalactic absorption and emission signatures and to guide the design of targeted observations with existing and upcoming facilities. △ Less

Submitted 27 October, 2025; v1 submitted 7 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025.

Comments: 27 pages; 23 figures; submitted to the Open Journal of Astrophysics; updated references

MEGATRON: how the first stars create an iron metallicity plateau in the smallest dwarf galaxies

Authors: Martin P. Rey, Harley Katz, Corentin Cadiou, Mahsa Sanati, Oscar Agertz, Jeremy Blaizot, Alex J. Cameron, Nicholas Choustikov, Julien Devriendt, Uliana Hauk, Alexander P. Ji, Gareth C. Jones, Taysun Kimm, Isaac Laseter, Sergio Martin-Alvarez, Kosei Matsumoto, Autumn Pearce, Yves Revaz, Francisco Rodriguez Montero, Joki Rosdahl, Aayush Saxena, Adrianne Slyz, Richard Stiskalek, Anatole Storck, Oscar Veenema , et al. (1 additional authors not shown)

Abstract: We study the stellar mass-iron metallicity relation of dwarf galaxies in the new high-resolution MEGATRON cosmological radiation-hydrodynamics simulations. These simulations model galaxy formation up to $z\approx8$ in a region that will collapse into a Milky-Way-like galaxy at $z=0$, while self-consistently tracking Population III and II (Pop.~III, Pop.~II) star formation, feedback and chemical en… ▽ More We study the stellar mass-iron metallicity relation of dwarf galaxies in the new high-resolution MEGATRON cosmological radiation-hydrodynamics simulations. These simulations model galaxy formation up to $z\approx8$ in a region that will collapse into a Milky-Way-like galaxy at $z=0$, while self-consistently tracking Population III and II (Pop.~III, Pop.~II) star formation, feedback and chemical enrichment. MEGATRON dwarf galaxies are in excellent agreement with the observed stellar mass-metallicity relation at $z=0$, including an over-abundance of dwarfs along a flat plateau in metallicity ($\langle [\rm{Fe}/\rm{H}] \rangle \approx -2.5$) at low stellar masses ($M_{\star} \leq 10^5 \, \rm{M}_{\odot}$). We tie this feature to the chemical enrichment of dwarf galaxies by Pop.~III pair-instability supernova (PISN) explosions. The strong Lyman-Werner background (LW) from the protogalaxy ensures that PISNe occur in haloes massive enough ($\approx 10^7\, \rm{M}_{\odot}$) to retain their ejecta. We also predict a tail of $\approx 20\%$ of iron-deficient ($\langle [\rm{Fe}/\rm{H}] \rangle \leq - 3$) dwarf galaxies. We show that both plateau and tail (i) are robust to large variations in Pop.~II feedback assumptions, and (ii) survive in bound satellites surrounding the central galaxy at $z=0$. △ Less

Submitted 6 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025.

Comments: Main text 13 pages, part of the Megatron initial paper release. Submitted to the Open Journal of Astrophysics, comments welcome!

MEGATRON: Reproducing the Diversity of High-Redshift Galaxy Spectra with Cosmological Radiation Hydrodynamics Simulations

Authors: Harley Katz, Martin P. Rey, Corentin Cadiou, Oscar Agertz, Jeremy Blaizot, Alex J. Cameron, Nicholas Choustikov, Julien Devriendt, Uliana Hauk, Gareth C. Jones, Taysun Kimm, Isaac Laseter, Sergio Martin-Alvarez, Kosei Matsumoto, Autumn Pearce, Francisco Rodríguez Montero, Joki Rosdahl, Mahsa Sanati, Aayush Saxena, Adrianne Slyz, Richard Stiskalek, Anatole Storck, Oscar Veenema, Wonjae Yee

Abstract: We present the MEGATRON suite of cosmological radiation hydrodynamics simulations following the formation of Milky Way-mass galaxies from the earliest cosmic epochs when Population III stars form to Cosmic Noon. The suite represents the first set of cosmological simulations that couples a vast non-equilibrium thermochemistry network of primordial species, metals, and molecules to multifrequency, o… ▽ More We present the MEGATRON suite of cosmological radiation hydrodynamics simulations following the formation of Milky Way-mass galaxies from the earliest cosmic epochs when Population III stars form to Cosmic Noon. The suite represents the first set of cosmological simulations that couples a vast non-equilibrium thermochemistry network of primordial species, metals, and molecules to multifrequency, on-the-fly radiation transport, allowing us to directly predict the spectral properties of early galaxies. By initializing the simulations at zero metallicity, resolving haloes well below the atomic cooling threshold, reaching parsec-scale resolution, and modeling a Milky Way-mass environment, we aim to address four key science themes: 1) Star formation at cosmic dawn, 2) Galaxy formation and the interstellar medium in the epoch of reionization, 3) The circumgalactic medium towards cosmic noon, and 4) Reionization in a local volume environment and near-field cosmology. In this introductory work, we present an overview of the physical characteristics of high-redshift MEGATRON galaxies and their environment at $z>8$. We present a library of $>175,000$ simulated galaxy spectra and demonstrate how the diversity of galaxy spectra seen by JWST is naturally reproduced in the context of a $Λ$CDM cosmology. This project represents a step towards making more direct comparisons between simulations and observations and will enable future work to both optimize methods for inferring galaxy properties from observations and to elucidate the physics that governs galaxy formation in the early Universe. △ Less

Submitted 6 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025.

Comments: 26 pages, 20 figures, to be submitted to The Open Journal of Astrophysics

Uncertainties in high-$z$ galaxy properties inferred from SED fitting using JWST NIRCam photometry

Authors: Jiyoung Choe, Taysun Kimm, Harley Katz, Maxime Rey, Daniel Han, J. K. Jang, Joki Rosdahl

Abstract: Numerous high-$z$ galaxies have recently been observed with JWST, providing new insights into early galaxy evolution. Their physical properties are typically derived through spectral energy distribution (SED) fitting, but the reliability of this approach remains uncertain owing to limited constraints on star formation histories (SFHs) and on the contribution from emission for such early systems. A… ▽ More Numerous high-$z$ galaxies have recently been observed with JWST, providing new insights into early galaxy evolution. Their physical properties are typically derived through spectral energy distribution (SED) fitting, but the reliability of this approach remains uncertain owing to limited constraints on star formation histories (SFHs) and on the contribution from emission for such early systems. Applying \bagpipes\ on simulated SEDs with SFR$_{10}>0.3\,M_\odot/yr$ at $z=6$ from the SPHINX cosmological simulation, we examine the uncertainties related to the recovery of stellar masses, star formation rates (SFR$_{10}$), and stellar metallicities from mock JWST/Near-Infrared Camera photometry, spanning F115W--F444W. Even without dust or emission lines, fitting the intrinsic stellar continuum overestimates the stellar mass by about 60\%, on average (and by up to a factor of five for low-mass galaxies with recent starbursts). It also underestimates the SFR$_{10}$ by a factor of 2, due to inaccurate SFHs and age-metallicity degeneracies. In full SED-fitting models that include dust attenuation and nebular emission, stellar mass estimates are primarily affected by age-metallicity degeneracy and emission lines. Short-term SFRs are most sensitive to dust attenuation and nebular emission, while long-term SFRs additionally depend on the assumed SFHs. Incorporating bands that are free of strong emission lines, such as F410M, helps mitigate stellar mass overestimation by disentangling line emission from older stellar populations. We also find that best fit or likelihood-weighted estimates are generally more accurate than median posterior values. Although stellar mass functions are reproduced reasonably well (particularly when the minimum-$χ^2$ estimates are used), the slope of the main sequence of star formation acutely depends on the adopted fitting model. [Abridged] △ Less

Submitted 29 January, 2026; v1 submitted 30 September, 2025; originally announced October 2025.

Comments: 22 pages, 20 figures, Accepted for publication in A&A

Journal ref: A&A 707, A29 (2026)

Non-local mass superpositions and optical clock interferometry in atomic ensemble quantum networks

Authors: Charles Fromonteil, Denis V. Vasilyev, Torsten V. Zache, Klemens Hammerer, Ana Maria Rey, Jun Ye, Hannes Pichler, Peter Zoller

Abstract: Quantum networks are emerging as powerful platforms for sensing, communication, and fundamental tests of physics. We propose a programmable quantum sensing network based on entangled atomic ensembles, where optical clock qubits emulate mass superpositions in atom and atom-clock interferometry. Our approach uniquely combines scalability to large atom numbers with minimal control requirements, relyi… ▽ More Quantum networks are emerging as powerful platforms for sensing, communication, and fundamental tests of physics. We propose a programmable quantum sensing network based on entangled atomic ensembles, where optical clock qubits emulate mass superpositions in atom and atom-clock interferometry. Our approach uniquely combines scalability to large atom numbers with minimal control requirements, relying only on collective addressing of internal atomic states. This enables the creation of both non-local and local superpositions with spatial separations beyond those achievable in conventional interferometry. Starting from Bell-type seed states distributed via photonic channels, collective operations within atomic ensembles coherently build many-body mass superpositions sensitive to gravitational redshift. The resulting architecture realizes a non-local Ramsey interferometer, with gravitationally induced phase shifts observable in network-based interference patterns. Beyond extending the spatial reach of mass superpositions, our scheme establishes a scalable, programmable platform to probe the interface of quantum mechanics and gravity, and offers a new experimental pathway to test atom and atom-clock interferometer proposals in a network-based quantum laboratory. △ Less

Submitted 23 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025.

The emergence of globular clusters and globular-cluster-like dwarfs

Authors: Ethan D. Taylor, Justin I. Read, Matthew D. A. Orkney, Stacy Y. Kim, Andrew Pontzen, Oscar Agertz, Martin P. Rey, Eric P. Andersson, Michelle L. M. Collins, Robert M. Yates

Abstract: Globular clusters (GCs) are among the oldest and densest stellar systems in the Universe, yet how they form remains a mystery. Here we present a suite of cosmological simulations in which both dark-matter-free GCs and dark-matter-rich dwarf galaxies naturally emerge in the Standard Cosmology. We show that these objects inhabit distinct locations in the size-luminosity plane and that they have simi… ▽ More Globular clusters (GCs) are among the oldest and densest stellar systems in the Universe, yet how they form remains a mystery. Here we present a suite of cosmological simulations in which both dark-matter-free GCs and dark-matter-rich dwarf galaxies naturally emerge in the Standard Cosmology. We show that these objects inhabit distinct locations in the size-luminosity plane and that they have similar ages, age spread, metallicity and metallicity spread to globulars and dwarfs in the nearby Universe. About half of our simulated globulars form by means of regular star formation near the centres of their host dwarf, with the rest forming further out, triggered by mergers. The latter are more tidally isolated and more likely to survive to the present day. Finally, our simulations predict the existence of a new class of object that we call 'globular-cluster-like dwarfs' (GCDs). These form from a single, self-quenching, star-formation event in low-mass dark-matter halos at high redshift and have observational properties intermediate between globulars and dwarfs. We identify several dwarfs in our Galaxy, such as Reticulum II (refs. 2-4), that could be in this new class. If so, they promise unprecedented constraints on dark-matter models and new sites to search for metal-free stars. △ Less

Submitted 11 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025.

Comments: 11 pages, 4 figures, 1 extended data figure, 1 extended data table. Published in Nature Sept 11th 2025 edition and can be accessed here: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09494-x

Journal ref: The emergence of globular clusters and globular-cluster-like dwarfs. Nature 645, 327-331 (2025)

Polarization-dependent chiral transport and chiral solitons in spin Kitaev models

Authors: Chenwei Lv, Thomas Bilitewski, Ana Maria Rey, Qi Zhou

Abstract: Recent advances in synthetic quantum matter allow researchers to design quantum models inaccessible in traditional materials. Here, we propose protocols to engineer a new class of quantum spin models, which we call spin Kitaev models. The building blocks are basic spin-exchange interactions combined with locally selective Floquet pulses, a capability recently demonstrated in a range of experimenta… ▽ More Recent advances in synthetic quantum matter allow researchers to design quantum models inaccessible in traditional materials. Here, we propose protocols to engineer a new class of quantum spin models, which we call spin Kitaev models. The building blocks are basic spin-exchange interactions combined with locally selective Floquet pulses, a capability recently demonstrated in a range of experimental platforms. The resulting flip-flip and flop-flop terms lead to intriguing quantum transport dynamics beyond conventional spin models. For instance, in the absence of a magnetic field, spin excitations polarized along the $x$ and $y$ axes propagate chirally in opposite directions, producing polarization-dependent spin transport. In the large-spin limit, the spin Kitaev model maps to a nonlinear Hatano-Nelson model, where the interplay of nonlinearity and the underlying curvature yields polarization-dependent chiral solitons. A magnetic field binds two oppositely polarized chiral solitons into a chiral solitonic molecule, whose travel direction depends on its orientation. Our results, directly accessible in current experiments, open new opportunities for simulating transport in curved spaces and for applications in spintronics, information processing, and quantum sensing. △ Less

Submitted 23 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025.

Comments: 7+9 pages, 3+7 figures

Parametric Amplification of Spin-Motion Coupling in Three-Dimensional Trapped-Ion Crystals

Authors: Samarth Hawaldar, N. Nikhil, Ana Maria Rey, John J. Bollinger, Athreya Shankar

Abstract: Three-dimensional (3D) crystals offer a route to scale up trapped ion systems for quantum sensing and quantum simulation applications. However, engineering coherent spin-motion couplings and effective spin-spin interactions in large crystals poses technical challenges associated with decoherence and prolonged timescales to generate appreciable entanglement. Here, we explore the possibility to spee… ▽ More Three-dimensional (3D) crystals offer a route to scale up trapped ion systems for quantum sensing and quantum simulation applications. However, engineering coherent spin-motion couplings and effective spin-spin interactions in large crystals poses technical challenges associated with decoherence and prolonged timescales to generate appreciable entanglement. Here, we explore the possibility to speed up these interactions in 3D crystals via parametric amplification. We derive a general Hamiltonian for the parametric amplification of spin-motion coupling that is applicable to crystals of any dimension in both rf Paul traps and Penning traps. Unlike in lower dimensional crystals, we find that the ability to faithfully (uniformly) amplify the spin-spin interactions in 3D crystals depends on the physical implementation of the spin-motion coupling. We consider the light-shift (LS) gate, and the so-called phase-insensitive and phase-sensitive Mølmer-Sørensen (MS) gates, and find that only the latter gate can be faithfully amplified in general 3D crystals. We discuss a situation where non-uniform amplification can be advantageous. We also reconsider the impact of counter-rotating terms on parametric amplification and find that they are not as detrimental as previous studies suggest. △ Less

Submitted 22 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025.

Comments: 11+3 pages, 5 figures; comments welcome

Effects of Small-Chain Superexchange Dynamics on Spin-Orbit Coupled Clock Spectroscopy

Authors: Mikhail Mamaev, Ana Maria Rey, William R. Milner

Abstract: Optical lattice clocks have set records in clock precision and accuracy. Continuing to advance their performance, via probing as many atoms for the longest interrogation time affordable, requires experimentally and theoretically studying a many-body lattice system. Motivated by recent experimental results on a Fermi-degenerate three-dimensional optical lattice clock, we present a theoretical overv… ▽ More Optical lattice clocks have set records in clock precision and accuracy. Continuing to advance their performance, via probing as many atoms for the longest interrogation time affordable, requires experimentally and theoretically studying a many-body lattice system. Motivated by recent experimental results on a Fermi-degenerate three-dimensional optical lattice clock, we present a theoretical overview of Ramsey and Rabi spectroscopy in one-dimensional chains. At realistic experimental temperatures and confinement conditions, atoms are spatially localized into small chains of $\approx 1-5$ atoms. We show that in the presence of spin-orbit coupling induced by the clock laser, the spectroscopy observables are modified by superexchange interactions within each chain, and depend strongly on the length of the chain. The thermal distribution of chain lengths thus plays a key role in the spectroscopy measurements. Our results offer insight into observable many-body effects in state-of-the-art lattice clocks and suggest new directions for optimizing clock performance. △ Less

Submitted 15 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025.

Comments: 10+5 pages, 4 figures

The PARADIGM project II: The lifetimes and quenching of satellites in Milky Way-mass haloes

Authors: Gandhali D. Joshi, Andrew Pontzen, Oscar Agertz, Justin Read, Martin P. Rey

Abstract: The abundance and star-formation histories of satellites of Milky Way (MW)-like galaxies are linked to their hosts' assembly histories. To explore this connection, we use the PARADIGM suite of zoom-in hydrodynamical simulations of MW-mass haloes, evolving the same initial conditions spanning various halo assembly histories with the VINTERGATAN and IllustrisTNG models. Our VINTERGATAN simulations o… ▽ More The abundance and star-formation histories of satellites of Milky Way (MW)-like galaxies are linked to their hosts' assembly histories. To explore this connection, we use the PARADIGM suite of zoom-in hydrodynamical simulations of MW-mass haloes, evolving the same initial conditions spanning various halo assembly histories with the VINTERGATAN and IllustrisTNG models. Our VINTERGATAN simulations overpredict the number of satellites compared to observations (and to IllustrisTNG) due to a higher $M_{*}$ at fixed $M_{\rm tot}$. Despite this difference, the two models show good qualitative agreement for both satellite disruption fractions and timescales, and quenching. The number of satellites rises rapidly until $z=1$ and then remains nearly constant. The fraction of satellites from each epoch that are disrupted by $z=0$ decreases steadily from nearly 100% to 0% during $4>z>0.1$. These fractions are higher for VINTERGATAN than IllustrisTNG, except for massive satellites ($M_{*}>10^{7}\,M_{\odot}$) at $z>0.5$. This difference is largely due to varying distributions of pericentric distance, orbital period and number of orbits, in turn determined by which sub(haloes) are populated with galaxies by the two models. The time between accretion and disruption also remains approximately constant over $2>z>0.3$ at $6-8$ Gyr. For surviving satellites at $z=0$, both models recover the observed trend of massive satellites quenching more recently ($<8$ Gyr ago) and within $1.5\,r_{\rm 200c}$ of the host, while low mass satellites quench earlier and often outside the host. Our results provide constraints on satellite accretion, quenching and disruption timescales, while highlighting the convergent trends from two very different galaxy formation models. △ Less

Submitted 29 October, 2025; v1 submitted 7 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025.

Comments: Accepted for publication in MNRAS

Journal ref: Mon Not R Astron Soc (2025) 2811-2834

Jellyfish Galaxies in Magnetic Fields: Insights from Numerical Simulations

Authors: Jaehyun Lee, Taysun Kimm, Jérémy Blaizot, Julien Devriendt, Sergio Martin-Alvarez, Jinsu Rhee, Maxime Rey, Adrianne Slyz

Abstract: Jellyfish galaxies provide direct evidence of ram pressure stripping in cluster environments. We investigate the role of magnetic fields in the formation of jellyfish galaxies with a multiphase interstellar medium (ISM) using radiation magneto-hydrodynamic simulations. We impose magnetized (MHD) and non-magnetized (HD) winds on the gas-rich dwarf galaxies containing the magnetized or non-magnetize… ▽ More Jellyfish galaxies provide direct evidence of ram pressure stripping in cluster environments. We investigate the role of magnetic fields in the formation of jellyfish galaxies with a multiphase interstellar medium (ISM) using radiation magneto-hydrodynamic simulations. We impose magnetized (MHD) and non-magnetized (HD) winds on the gas-rich dwarf galaxies containing the magnetized or non-magnetized ISM. The MHD winds strip the disk gas more effectively than the HD winds because of the magnetic force acting against the local density gradient, which results in remarkably different ram pressure stripped features. The magnetic fields induced by the MHD winds generate a strong magnetic pressure, which forms smoothed disks and tail gas features. Since the stripped ISM in MHD wind cases travels while being nearly isolated from the intracluster medium (ICM), the stripped ISM mostly forms stars within 20~kpc of the galactic disks. In contrast, non-magnetized winds facilitate the efficient mixing of the stripped ISM with the ICM, resulting in the formation of abundant warm clouds that cool and collapse in the distant ($\sim50-100\,$kpc) tails at times of a few hundred Myr. Consequently, distant tail star formation occurs only in the HD wind runs. Finally, despite the different tail features, the star formation rates in the disk remain similar owing to the interplay between the increased gas stripping and the gas density increase in the disks of the MHD wind runs. These results suggest that the magnetized ICM may have a significant influence on jellyfish galaxies, whereas the magnetized ISM play a minor role. △ Less

Submitted 3 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025.

Comments: 28 pages, 25 figures, Submitted to ApJ

Combined frequency comb and continuous wave cavity-enhanced optical-optical double-resonance spectrometer in the 1.7 $μ$m range

Authors: Vinicius Silva de Oliveira, Adrian Hjältén, Isak Silander, Andrea Rosina, Michael Rey, Kevin K. Lehmann, Aleksandra Foltynowicz

Abstract: We present an optical-optical double-resonance (OODR) spectrometer based on a 3.3 $μ$m continuous wave pump and two cavity-enhanced probes: a frequency comb tunable in the 1.64 - 1.8 $μ$m range, and a comb-referenced continuous wave (CW) laser tunable in the 1.6 - 1.75 $μ$m range. The comb probe provides broad spectral coverage (bandwidth up to 7 THz) for simultaneous detection of many sub-Doppler… ▽ More We present an optical-optical double-resonance (OODR) spectrometer based on a 3.3 $μ$m continuous wave pump and two cavity-enhanced probes: a frequency comb tunable in the 1.64 - 1.8 $μ$m range, and a comb-referenced continuous wave (CW) laser tunable in the 1.6 - 1.75 $μ$m range. The comb probe provides broad spectral coverage (bandwidth up to 7 THz) for simultaneous detection of many sub-Doppler OODR transitions with sub-MHz line position accuracy, while the CW probe allows targeting individual transitions with kHz accuracy and higher signal-to-noise ratio in shorter time. Using the pump stabilized to the frequency of the R(0) transition in the $ν$${_3}$ band of methane and the comb probe covering the 5550 to 6070 cm$^{-1}$ interval, we detect 37 ladder-type transitions in the 3$ν$${_3}$ $\leftarrow$ $ν$${_3}$ band region and 6 V-type transitions in the 2$ν$${_3}$ band region and assign them using available theoretical predictions. Using the CW probe, we measure selected ladder- and V-type transitions with much higher precision. We also detect Lamb dips in the R(0)- R(3) transitions of the 2$ν$${_3}$ band and report their center frequencies with kHz level accuracy. The synergy effects of the comb- and CW-OODR open new possibilities in precision spectroscopy of levels that cannot be reached from the ground state. △ Less

Submitted 21 June, 2025; originally announced June 2025.

Journal ref: Opt. Express 33, 38776 (2025)

Assignment of collision-induced four-level double-resonance transitions in the 3$ν$${_3}$ ${\Leftarrow}$ $ν$${_3}$ spectral region of methane

Authors: Kevin K. Lehmann, Isak Silander, Adrian Hjältén, Michael Rey, Aleksandra Foltynowicz

Abstract: Optical-optical double-resonance (OODR) spectroscopy using a narrow-linewidth pump and a frequency comb probe has previously been used to measure and assign sub-Doppler transitions in the 3$ν$${_3}$ ${\Leftarrow}$ $ν$${_3}$ spectral region [J. Chem. Phys. 161, 124311 (2024)] when pumping from the J = (7, A${_2}$) ground state. Doppler-broadened double-resonance transitions were also observed in th… ▽ More Optical-optical double-resonance (OODR) spectroscopy using a narrow-linewidth pump and a frequency comb probe has previously been used to measure and assign sub-Doppler transitions in the 3$ν$${_3}$ ${\Leftarrow}$ $ν$${_3}$ spectral region [J. Chem. Phys. 161, 124311 (2024)] when pumping from the J = (7, A${_2}$) ground state. Doppler-broadened double-resonance transitions were also observed in those OODR spectra. In this paper, 68 of these Doppler-broadened transitions are assigned to four-level double-resonance transitions involving collisional transfer from the pumped A${_1}$ symmetry state to other A${_1}$ and A${_2}$ symmetry (I = 2 meta nuclear spin) levels of the $ν$${_3}$ fundamental state. Assignments are made using combination differences and comparison with the term values and intensities of lines predicted by a new effective Hamiltonian, the accuracy of which has been validated by the sub-Doppler transitions. △ Less

Submitted 16 June, 2025; originally announced June 2025.

Journal ref: J. Chem. Phys. 163, 144304 (2025)

Lieb-Mattis states for robust entangled differential phase sensing

Authors: Raphael Kaubruegger, Diego Fallas Padilla, Athreya Shankar, Christoph Hotter, Sean R. Muleady, Jacob Bringewatt, Youcef Baamara, Erfan Abbasgholinejad, Alexey V. Gorshkov, Klaus Mølmer, James K. Thompson, Ana Maria Rey

Abstract: We explore a two-node, entanglement-enhanced sensor network for differential phase sensing that exploits decoherence-free subspaces to suppress common-mode noise, a primary limitation of many state-of-the-art quantum sensors. We identify a class of entangled states that, while not strictly optimal, achieve the same asymptotic sensitivity scaling as optimal states and can be prepared efficiently fr… ▽ More We explore a two-node, entanglement-enhanced sensor network for differential phase sensing that exploits decoherence-free subspaces to suppress common-mode noise, a primary limitation of many state-of-the-art quantum sensors. We identify a class of entangled states that, while not strictly optimal, achieve the same asymptotic sensitivity scaling as optimal states and can be prepared efficiently from initially unentangled atomic ensembles. Importantly, the preparation time decreases with increasing system size. This makes the states compatible with realistic noise processes in present-day quantum sensors that operate with large particle numbers but lack full error correction. We illustrate these ideas using two cavity-mediated preparation protocols: (i) coherent, unitary entanglement generation analogous to bosonic two-mode squeezing, yielding Heisenberg scaling; and (ii) dissipative preparation via collective emission into a shared cavity mode, providing a square-root improvement beyond the standard quantum limit. Numerical simulations show that both approaches remain effective at experimentally realistic cavity cooperativities, establishing a practical path toward scalable, quantum-enhanced differential phase sensing. △ Less

Submitted 17 April, 2026; v1 submitted 11 June, 2025; originally announced June 2025.

Journal ref: Phys. Rev. X 16, 021052 (2026)

Pavo: Stellar feedback in action in a low-mass dwarf galaxy

Authors: Michael G. Jones, Martin P. Rey, David J. Sand, Kristine Spekkens, Burcin Mutlu-Pakdil, Elizabeth A. K. Adams, Paul Bennet, Denija Crnojevic, Amandine Doliva-Dolinsky, Richard Donnerstein, Catherine E. Fielder, Julia Healy, Laura C. Hunter, Ananthan Karunakaran, Deepthi S. Prabhu, Dennis Zaritsky

Abstract: MeerKAT observations of the recently discovered, extremely low mass galaxy, Pavo, have revealed a neutral gas (HI) reservoir that was undetected in archival HI single dish data. We measure Pavo's HI mass as $\log M_\mathrm{HI}/\mathrm{M_\odot} = 5.79 \pm 0.05$, making it the lowest mass HI reservoir currently known in an isolated galaxy (with a robust distance measurement). Despite Pavo's extreme… ▽ More MeerKAT observations of the recently discovered, extremely low mass galaxy, Pavo, have revealed a neutral gas (HI) reservoir that was undetected in archival HI single dish data. We measure Pavo's HI mass as $\log M_\mathrm{HI}/\mathrm{M_\odot} = 5.79 \pm 0.05$, making it the lowest mass HI reservoir currently known in an isolated galaxy (with a robust distance measurement). Despite Pavo's extreme isolation, with no known neighbor within over 700 kpc, its HI reservoir is highly disturbed. It does not show clear signs of rotation and its center of mass is offset from the stellar body center by 320 pc, while its peak is offset by 82 pc (both in projection). Despite this disturbed morphology, Pavo still appears to be consistent with the HI size--mass relation, although it is not possible to accurately determine a suitable inclination correction. Such disturbed, offset and disorganized HI reservoirs are predicted by simulations of low-mass, star-forming dwarfs in which supernova-driven outflows efficiently disrupt the interstellar medium after a star formation event. It is likely that we are witnessing Pavo in precisely this period, tens to a few hundred Myr after a star formation episode, when internal feedback has disrupted its gas reservoir. △ Less

Submitted 26 July, 2025; v1 submitted 6 June, 2025; originally announced June 2025.

Comments: Accepted to ApJ

Atomic Coherence of 2 minutes and Instability of 1.5E-18 at 1 s in a Wannier-Stark Lattice Clock

Authors: Kyungtae Kim, Alexander Aeppli, William Warfield, Anjun Chu, Ana Maria Rey, Jun Ye

Abstract: We explore the limits of atomic coherence and measurement precision in a 87Sr optical lattice clock. We perform a detailed characterization of key effects, including lattice Raman scattering and atomic collisions in a shallow lattice configuration, determining a 174(28) s 3P0 clock state lifetime. Investigation of atomic coherence across a range of lattice depths and atomic densities reveals decoh… ▽ More We explore the limits of atomic coherence and measurement precision in a 87Sr optical lattice clock. We perform a detailed characterization of key effects, including lattice Raman scattering and atomic collisions in a shallow lattice configuration, determining a 174(28) s 3P0 clock state lifetime. Investigation of atomic coherence across a range of lattice depths and atomic densities reveals decoherence mechanisms related to photon scattering and atomic interaction. At a reduced density, we observe a coherence time of 118(9) s, approaching the fundamental limit set by spontaneous emission. Guided by this coherence understanding, we demonstrate a clock instability of 1.5E-18 at 1 s in fractional frequency units. Our results are important for further advancing the state-of-the-art of an optical lattice clock for fundamental physics applications. △ Less

Submitted 9 May, 2025; originally announced May 2025.

Solitons in arbitrary dimensions stabilized by photon-mediated interactions

Authors: Haoqing Zhang, Anjun Chu, Chengyi Luo, James K. Thompson, Ana Maria Rey

Abstract: We propose a scheme to generate solitons in arbitrary dimensions, in a matter-wave interferometer, without the need of quantum degeneracy. In our setting, solitons emerge by balancing the single-particle dispersion with engineered cavity-mediated exchange interactions between two wave packets, which, at the appropriate conditions, remain bound to each other and dispersion-free. For detection in th… ▽ More We propose a scheme to generate solitons in arbitrary dimensions, in a matter-wave interferometer, without the need of quantum degeneracy. In our setting, solitons emerge by balancing the single-particle dispersion with engineered cavity-mediated exchange interactions between two wave packets, which, at the appropriate conditions, remain bound to each other and dispersion-free. For detection in thermal gases, we propose an interferometric probing scheme instead of traditional time-of-flight imaging. △ Less

Submitted 23 April, 2025; originally announced April 2025.

Comments: 8+5 pages, 6+2 figures

Journal ref: Phys. Rev. Lett. 135, 173402 (2025)

EDGE: The emergence of dwarf galaxy scaling relations from cosmological radiation-hydrodynamics simulations

Authors: Martin P. Rey, Ethan Taylor, Emily I. Gray, Stacy Y. Kim, Eric P. Andersson, Andrew Pontzen, Oscar Agertz, Justin I. Read, Corentin Cadiou, Robert M. Yates, Matthew D. A. Orkney, Dirk Scholte, Amélie Saintonge, Joseph Breneman, Kristen B. W. McQuinn, Claudia Muni, Payel Das

Abstract: We present a new suite of EDGE (`Engineering Dwarfs at Galaxy formation's Edge') cosmological zoom simulations. The suite includes 15 radiation-hydrodynamical dwarf galaxies covering the ultra-faint to the dwarf irregular regime ($10^4 \leq M_{\star}(z=0) \leq 10^8 \, M_{\odot}$) to enable comparisons with observed scaling relations. Each object in the suite is evolved at high resolution (… ▽ More We present a new suite of EDGE (`Engineering Dwarfs at Galaxy formation's Edge') cosmological zoom simulations. The suite includes 15 radiation-hydrodynamical dwarf galaxies covering the ultra-faint to the dwarf irregular regime ($10^4 \leq M_{\star}(z=0) \leq 10^8 \, M_{\odot}$) to enable comparisons with observed scaling relations. Each object in the suite is evolved at high resolution ($\approx 3 \, \text{pc}$) and includes stellar radiation, winds and supernova feedback channels. We compare with previous \textsc{edge} simulations without radiation, finding that radiative feedback results in significantly weaker galactic outflows. This generalizes our previous findings to a wide mass range, and reveals that the effect is most significant at low $M_{\star}$. Despite this difference, stellar masses stay within a factor of two of each other, and key scaling relations of dwarf galaxies (size-mass, neutral gas-stellar mass, gas-phase mass-metallicity) emerge correctly in both simulation suites. Only the stellar mass -- stellar metallicity relation is strongly sensitive to the change in feedback. This highlights how obtaining statistical samples of dwarf galaxy stellar abundances with next-generation spectrographs will be key to probing and constraining the baryon cycle of dwarf galaxies. △ Less

Submitted 15 August, 2025; v1 submitted 5 March, 2025; originally announced March 2025.

Comments: Matching published version in MNRAS. Minor changes, extra appendix. Results unchanged