Showing 1–50 of 169 results for author: Sim, S A

Multi-dimensional NLTE radiative transfer for a double detonation Type Ia explosion model in the photospheric phase

Authors: F. P. Callan, L. J. Shingles, S. A. Sim, C. E. Collins, J. M. Pollin, R. Pakmor, S. Gronow, F. K. Roepke, A. Holas, I. R. Seitenzahl

Abstract: Previous radiative transfer calculations have shown that both multi-dimensionality and NLTE (non local thermodynamic equilibrium) effects impact the synthetic observables predicted for Type Ia supernova explosion models. Here we carry out a 2D NLTE radiative transfer simulation in the photospheric phase for a double detonation model with a 1 M$_{\odot}$ carbon-oxygen core and 0.02 M$_{\odot}$ heli… ▽ More Previous radiative transfer calculations have shown that both multi-dimensionality and NLTE (non local thermodynamic equilibrium) effects impact the synthetic observables predicted for Type Ia supernova explosion models. Here we carry out a 2D NLTE radiative transfer simulation in the photospheric phase for a double detonation model with a 1 M$_{\odot}$ carbon-oxygen core and 0.02 M$_{\odot}$ helium shell. The predicted observables demonstrate that departures from both spherical symmetry and local thermodynamic equilibrium are significant on scales relevant to comparisons with observations. The NLTE treatment leads to a bluer spectral energy distribution, more slowly declining optical-band light curves, changes to the near-infrared light curve shapes, and differences in the evolution of key spectral features. Although substantial viewing-angle variation is predicted for the model, the scale of the variation is not significantly impacted by NLTE effects up to peak. However, after peak, our 2D NLTE simulation retains a strong viewing-angle dependence in its spectra whereas our simulation of the same ejecta model using an approximate NLTE treatment predicts significantly reduced spectroscopic viewing-angle variation. The NLTE treatment leads to improved agreement with normal Type Ia supernovae, primarily due to the increased ionisation state of the simulation, although the absence of a secondary near-infrared maximum suggests that the ejecta remain over-ionised relative to observations after peak. Despite the improved agreement, many viewing angles still show excessive line blanketing, suggesting that the 0.02 M$_{\odot}$ helium-shell mass of the current model is too large to reproduce normal Type Ia supernovae over the majority of lines of sight. △ Less

Submitted 7 August, 2026; originally announced August 2026.

Comments: 18 pages, 12 figures. Submitted to MNRAS

Late-time emission-line profiles from kilonova models

Authors: S. A. Sim, O. Just, Z. Xiong, A. Bauswein, L. P. Mulholland, G. Leck, G. Martínez-Pinedo, L. J. Shingles, C. E. Collins, F. McNeill, M. McCann, C. P. Ballance, C. A. Ramsbottom

Abstract: Numerical simulations suggest that neutron star mergers eject material with complex, non-spherical density and composition distributions. Here we use two-dimensional configurations of merger ejecta obtained from long-term hydrodynamic simulations to quantify the influence of such ejecta structure on the shapes of spectral lines in the optically thin limit. We consider three example elements of int… ▽ More Numerical simulations suggest that neutron star mergers eject material with complex, non-spherical density and composition distributions. Here we use two-dimensional configurations of merger ejecta obtained from long-term hydrodynamic simulations to quantify the influence of such ejecta structure on the shapes of spectral lines in the optically thin limit. We consider three example elements of interest for kilonova modelling (selenium, tellurium and tungsten) and illustrate profile shapes for a sample of models and observer orientations. Many of our calculations yield complex profile shapes, including cases with multiple peaks and/or extended wings on scales large enough to be relevant to interpreting observations. For selenium and tellurium, our late-phase profile shapes are most sensitive to the structure of the low-velocity ejecta (~0.1c) launched after the merger from the relic black-hole torus system, while for heavier elements the contribution from the more rapidly expanding and more neutron-rich dynamical ejecta launched right after the merger is more significant and leads to broader line shapes. We also find that the dynamical influence of heating due to the decay of r-process elements can lead to considerably broader peaks than suggested by models that neglect this effect. Although idealised, our calculations demonstrate that line shapes are sensitive to the ejecta structure and could therefore constrain the polar observation angle or underlying properties of the merger that determine the spatial distributions of elements in the ejecta components, such as the binary mass ratio or even the equation of state of high-density matter. △ Less

Submitted 12 July, 2026; originally announced July 2026.

Comments: 16 pages, 10 figures, submitted to MNRAS

Observational signatures of thermonuclear electron-capture supernovae -- Ne II line strengthening and color evolution as traces of the explosion mechanism

Authors: Alexander Holas, Fionntan P. Callan, Samuel W. Jones, Friedrich K. Roepke, Rüdiger Pakmor, Alexandra Kozyreva, Christine E. Collins, Luke J. Shingles, Stuart A. Sim, Joshua M. Pollin

Abstract: Thermonuclear electron-capture supernovae (tECSNe) are a potential fate of certain intermediate mass stars forming ONe cores at the end of their evolution. Simulations suggest that these explosions are a viable alternative to collapse, yet no synthetic observables exist that allow for their identification among observed transients. We present first of their kind synthetic observables of a tECSN si… ▽ More Thermonuclear electron-capture supernovae (tECSNe) are a potential fate of certain intermediate mass stars forming ONe cores at the end of their evolution. Simulations suggest that these explosions are a viable alternative to collapse, yet no synthetic observables exist that allow for their identification among observed transients. We present first of their kind synthetic observables of a tECSN simulation, aiming to establish whether these explosions can occur in nature, and investigate potential observational signatures to separate them from similar transients such as pure deflagrations in CO white dwarfs. We carry out 3D photospheric phase and 1D late phase simulations using the radiative transfer code Artis. As input, we use a tECSN explosion simulation and a CO deflagration simulation with comparable $^{56}$Ni production, both computed with the Leafs code. Both models have similar observational characteristics, akin to SNe~Iax-like events. The tECSN ejecta model are characterized by a $M(^{56}\mathrm{Ni})/M_\mathrm{ej}$ ratio $25\%$ lower than that of comparable CO deflagration models. At early times, the tECSN model shows a slower decline in the red colors compared to the CO deflagration due the greater amount of Ti and Cr synthesized in the tECSN explosion. At late times, the tECSN model exhibits an exceptionally strong $12.8\,μ$m Ne II emission line, that strengthens substantially over time, whereas its strength remains largely unchanged in the CO deflagration. Our results suggest tECSNe could potentially result in SN~Iax-like transients. Importantly, we find no features that are in tension with existing observables. So far, there are no indicators that unambiguously and robustly separate tECSNe from deflagrations in CO white dwarfs. Nonetheless, our work highlights the potential importance of the mid-infrared wavelength range for distinguishing possible explosion mechanisms. △ Less

Submitted 3 June, 2026; originally announced June 2026.

Comments: 19 pages, 15 figures, accepted for publication in A&A

Nebular Fingerprints of a Violent White Dwarf Merger: 3D NLTE Modelling of Type Ia Supernovae

Authors: J. M. Pollin, R. Pakmor, L. J. Shingles, F. P. Callan, S. A. Sim, L. A. Kwok, C. E. Collins, F. K. Roepke, A. L. McGarrity

Abstract: Binary systems composed of two carbon-oxygen white dwarfs (WDs) are a leading progenitor candidate for Type Ia supernovae. One widely discussed scenario is the dynamically driven double-degenerate double-detonation (D$^6$) of a sub-Chandrasekhar-mass WD binary, where detonations are triggered by dynamical interaction. However, some systems are expected to undergo violent mergers, in which the prim… ▽ More Binary systems composed of two carbon-oxygen white dwarfs (WDs) are a leading progenitor candidate for Type Ia supernovae. One widely discussed scenario is the dynamically driven double-degenerate double-detonation (D$^6$) of a sub-Chandrasekhar-mass WD binary, where detonations are triggered by dynamical interaction. However, some systems are expected to undergo violent mergers, in which the primary ignites through direct carbon ignition as the secondary strikes its surface. We present the first 3D nebular-phase radiative-transfer calculations of a violent merger, using a $1.1 M_\odot$ and $0.7 M_\odot$ sub-Chandrasekhar binary. Our simulations employ a full NLTE (non local thermodynamic equilibrium) treatment of excitation and ionisation, including non-thermal electron contributions. By comparing 1D and 3D realisations, we show that multidimensional modelling improves the ionisation state and reveals features absent from 1D calculations, most notably [O I] from unburned material associated with the secondary. The model reproduces much of the panchromatic spectrum of the normal SN 2021aefx, but underpredicts [Ni II] while producing strong high-ionisation stable-Ni features, illustrating that stable-Ni signatures depend not only on abundance, but also on ionisation state. Although the model does not reproduce the strong [Ar II] and [Ne II] emission observed in the 03fg-like SN 2022pul, our calculations suggest that this event may require a similar merger configuration, involving full disruption of the secondary or a more massive companion with more extensive burning. Finally, viewing-angle variation is substantial, with signatures distinct from D$^6$-like scenarios, suggesting that JWST nebular samples, combined with multidimensional modelling, can discriminate between channels. △ Less

Submitted 27 May, 2026; originally announced May 2026.

Comments: 28 pages, 16 figures. MNRAS Submitted

Quenching of X-ray emission in little red dots by both Compton-thick gas and high accretion rates

Authors: Albert Sneppen, Darach Watson, James H. Matthews, Stuart A. Sim

Abstract: Little red dots (LRDs) are candidate high-redshift supermassive black holes accreting in dense gas. They remain undetected in X-rays. In previous work, we provided the first quantitative models that reproduce the optical and near-infrared spectra of LRDs with the \sirocco radiative transfer code, thereby constraining the properties of the surrounding gas. Here, we use these constraints to predict… ▽ More Little red dots (LRDs) are candidate high-redshift supermassive black holes accreting in dense gas. They remain undetected in X-rays. In previous work, we provided the first quantitative models that reproduce the optical and near-infrared spectra of LRDs with the \sirocco radiative transfer code, thereby constraining the properties of the surrounding gas. Here, we use these constraints to predict the X-ray attenuation produced by dense gas cocoons, and explore its dependence on Balmer-break strength, metallicity, intrinsic X-ray spectral energy distribution, and observed bandpass as a function of redshift. The X-ray constraints are very tight, requiring extinction by a Compton-thick gas column ($N_{\rm H}\sim10^{25}\,{\rm cm}^{-2}$) with moderate metallicity $0.05$-$0.1\,Z_\odot$ and intrinsically weak X-ray emission (bolometric to X-ray luminosity ratio, $k_{\rm bol,X}\gtrsim 30$), as observed in narrow-line active galactic nuclei with high accretion rates, to make LRDs sufficiently faint to evade detection. Intrinsically bright X-ray emitters as seen in typical broad-line active galactic nuclei would be detected even behind the typical Compton-thick gas columns with modest metallicity that were inferred from the optical spectra. Very low metallicity objects might be detected in X-rays even with low intrinsic X-ray luminosities, suggesting that LRDs are not (currently) chemically pristine. △ Less

Submitted 16 July, 2026; v1 submitted 14 May, 2026; originally announced May 2026.

Comments: Accepted for publication in A&A, 7 pages, 5 figures

Exploring the diversity of kilonovae with 3D radiative transfer I. The polar direction

Authors: Christine E. Collins, Luke J. Shingles, Vimal Vijayan, Andreas Floers, Oliver Just, Fiona McNeill, Zewei Xiong, Andreas Bauswein, Kate Maguire, Stuart A. Sim

Abstract: We present 3D kilonova radiative transfer simulations for a series of binary neutron star merger models. The masses of the neutron stars are varied as well as the total mass of the system and two different equations of state were used (SFHO and DD2), producing a range in dynamical ejecta masses and elemental abundance patterns. In this paper, we focus on the bolometric light curves and spectra in… ▽ More We present 3D kilonova radiative transfer simulations for a series of binary neutron star merger models. The masses of the neutron stars are varied as well as the total mass of the system and two different equations of state were used (SFHO and DD2), producing a range in dynamical ejecta masses and elemental abundance patterns. In this paper, we focus on the bolometric light curves and spectra in the polar direction for comparison with observations of the kilonova AT2017gfo. We calculate line-by-line opacities and include new calibrated lanthanide atomic data. All of the simulated spectra show strong features from Sr II, La III, Gd III and Ce III, which appear to correspond to features identified in AT2017gfo, although the simulated features are generally more blueshifted. The models with the lowest lanthanide fraction in the polar direction also show a Y II feature. Ce III, Ce II, Nd III and Nd II play an important role in shaping the spectral continuum. While the bolometric luminosities in the polar direction vary with the ejecta mass of each model, we find only little sensitivity of the spectral properties to the merger configuration. Our study demonstrates that dynamical ejecta alone can reproduce (although at earlier times) many spectral properties of AT2017gfo, suggesting dynamical ejecta may have a strong impact on the early spectral evolution. However, future simulations are needed to also elucidate the role of other ejecta components for shaping the kilonova spectrum. △ Less

Submitted 24 April, 2026; originally announced April 2026.

Paschen Jumps in Little Red Dots: Evidence for Nebular Continua

Authors: Albert Sneppen, James H. Matthews, Darach Watson, Alex J. Cameron, Stuart A. Sim, Joris Witstok, Gabriel B. Brammer, Kasper E. Heintz, Georgios Nikopoulos

Abstract: ''Little Red Dots'' (LRDs) are broad-line sources at high redshift, initially identified by their compact morphologies, red colours and prominent Balmer breaks. The origin of their optical-to-near-infrared continua is debated, with proposed explanations ranging from direct recombination emission to thermalised blackbodies from stellar-like atmospheres. Here we report evidence for Paschen jumps in… ▽ More ''Little Red Dots'' (LRDs) are broad-line sources at high redshift, initially identified by their compact morphologies, red colours and prominent Balmer breaks. The origin of their optical-to-near-infrared continua is debated, with proposed explanations ranging from direct recombination emission to thermalised blackbodies from stellar-like atmospheres. Here we report evidence for Paschen jumps in a subset of LRDs, consistent with free-bound recombination to hydrogen $n=3$. The Paschen and Brackett continuum shapes across the sample are consistent with minimally reddened emission from low-temperature gas with $T_e\lesssim10\,000$ K, while the presence of Paschen jump signatures limits scenarios in which the emission is thermalised. Further, the extreme H$α$ equivalent widths and the tight observed correlation between H$α$ and the continuum follow naturally if both originate in recombination emission. This provides an observational upper limit on the contribution of any direct AGN accretion component and any stellar-atmosphere-like component, as well as on the fraction of line emission that can be thermalised as it traverses the cocoon. Ultimately, nebular radiative-transfer models provide a self-consistent explanation of the continuum, line strengths and line profiles without requiring multiple separately fitted components. △ Less

Submitted 10 April, 2026; originally announced April 2026.

Comments: 7 pages, 6 figures, submitted to A&A. Comments are welcome

Strontium and helium in the kilonova AT2017gfo: Origin of the 1μm feature constrained via NLTE calculations

Authors: Aayush Arya, Rasmus Damgaard, Albert Sneppen, David J. Dougan, Stuart A. Sim, Connor P. Ballance, Darach Watson

Abstract: Mergers of neutron stars are believed to be one of the primary sites for the synthesis of the universe's heavy elements via the rapid neutron capture process. AT2017gfo, the kilonova following GW170817 provided the first direct spectroscopic evidence of the $r$-process happening in the universe. A prominent line feature near $1\,μ$m in its spectrum was attributed to strontium -- a claim that has b… ▽ More Mergers of neutron stars are believed to be one of the primary sites for the synthesis of the universe's heavy elements via the rapid neutron capture process. AT2017gfo, the kilonova following GW170817 provided the first direct spectroscopic evidence of the $r$-process happening in the universe. A prominent line feature near $1\,μ$m in its spectrum was attributed to strontium -- a claim that has been independently recovered by several teams. However, in recent years it has been debated whether the feature arises instead from helium. Here, we present non--local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) radiative transfer modelling of the observed kilonova spectra, including detailed radiation-matter interaction physics for both strontium and helium. We make use of freshly calculated strontium atomic data for e$^-$ impact collisions, photoionization, and recombination processes. Our strontium model self-consistently reproduces the temporal evolution of the $1\,μ$m feature at early times, with its absence at $0.92\,$days to its clear emergence at $1.17\,$days. This transition mimics LTE, because at early epochs ($t\lesssim 1.5\,$days) the radiation field dominates the ionization state of the ejecta over thermal and non-thermal electron collisions. We further test if helium can form the feature under the same plasma conditions. The helium mass required at $1.17\,$days is comparable to the total ejecta mass, while a few percent by mass of helium suffices at 4.4 days. On the other hand, the strength of the strontium lines decrease with time, and may require a radially stratified abundance to consistently produce the feature. We conclude that strontium is required to explain the onset of the feature at early times, but helium can contribute to, or even dominate the feature at later epochs. △ Less

Submitted 7 April, 2026; originally announced April 2026.

Comments: 18 pages, 13 figures, submitted to Astronomy & Astrophysics

Radiation-ionization hydrodynamic simulations of AGN line-driven winds lead to transient shielding and BAL/UFO signatures

Authors: Nicolas Scepi, Christian Knigge, Amin Mosallanezhad, Knox S. Long, James H. Matthews, Stuart A. Sim, Austen Wallis

Abstract: Disc winds from active galactic nuclei (AGN) can be launched by radiation pressure acting on spectral lines. However, launching a line-driven wind in the X-ray rich environment of AGN is challenging, as the wind easily gets over-ionized. Previous simulations suggested that X-ray self-shielding could enable line driving, though it remained unclear whether this relied on simplified treatments of rad… ▽ More Disc winds from active galactic nuclei (AGN) can be launched by radiation pressure acting on spectral lines. However, launching a line-driven wind in the X-ray rich environment of AGN is challenging, as the wind easily gets over-ionized. Previous simulations suggested that X-ray self-shielding could enable line driving, though it remained unclear whether this relied on simplified treatments of radiation and ionization. Here, we revisit the X-ray shielding scenario using the first multi-frequency, multi-directional Monte-Carlo radiative photo-ionization hydrodynamical simulations of AGN line-driven winds. We find that sustaining a steady wind with mass-loss rates of $\approx20\%$ of the accretion rate requires an unrealistically weak X-ray flux ($α_{\rm OX}<-3$). For stronger X-ray emission ($-3<α_{\rm OX}<-1$), self-shielding is only transient, leading to episodic ejections with mass-loss rates approaching the accretion rate. Our steady winds naturally produce FeLoBAL, HiBAL, and broad emission line signatures, depending on the disc spectral energy distribution and the observer's inclination. At moderate X-ray luminosities ($α_{\rm OX}\sim-3$), transient winds can generate short-lived BAL and ultra-fast outflow (UFO) features. At the highest X-ray luminosities ($α_{\rm OX}\sim-1$), the winds are too ionized to form BALs, but still produce UFOs. These results imply that additional physics is required to explain BAL outflows at realistic X-ray levels and to drive winds strong enough for AGN feedback. Nonetheless, our simulations provide a new framework for interpreting the observed diversity of AGN outflow signatures with fully coupled radiation and dynamics. △ Less

Submitted 24 March, 2026; originally announced March 2026.

Comments: Accepted for publication in MNRAS, 17 pages, 12 figures and 7 videos as supplementary material on MNRAS website

Inside the cocoon: a comprehensive explanation of the spectra of Little Red Dots

Authors: A. Sneppen, D. Watson, J. H. Matthews, G. Nikopoulos, N. Allen, G. Brammer, R. Damgaard, K. E. Heintz, C. Knigge, K. S. Long, V. Rusakov, S. A. Sim, J. Witstok

Abstract: JWST has revealed a population of compact galaxies in the early Universe with broad emission lines and strong Balmer breaks; among them the so-called ''little red dots'' (LRDs). Their nature remains uncertain with hypotheses including exotic phenomena. We assemble a sample of LRD-like objects at $z>3$ and use self-consistent radiative-transfer calculations to show that a supermassive black hole ac… ▽ More JWST has revealed a population of compact galaxies in the early Universe with broad emission lines and strong Balmer breaks; among them the so-called ''little red dots'' (LRDs). Their nature remains uncertain with hypotheses including exotic phenomena. We assemble a sample of LRD-like objects at $z>3$ and use self-consistent radiative-transfer calculations to show that a supermassive black hole accreting from a dense gas cocoon accurately reproduces the detailed spectra. We show that the cocoons must be non-spherical, with comparable amounts of inflowing and outflowing material. And we predict correlations between Balmer break strength, Balmer line-absorption and scattering line width, which we confirm in our observed sample. We reproduce all LRD-like properties without requiring star-like atmospheres and we determine the typical black hole in our sample to be of order a million solar masses, with ionized cocoon masses of tens of solar masses potentially supplied from a much larger cold-gas reservoir. △ Less

Submitted 26 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026.

Comments: 40 pages, 22 figures, 2 tables

The critical role of clumping in line-driven disc winds

Authors: Amin Mosallanezhad, Christian Knigge, Nicolas Scepi, Knox S. Long, James H. Matthews, Stuart A. Sim, Austen Wallis

Abstract: Radiation pressure on spectral lines is a promising mechanism for powering disc winds from accreting white dwarfs (AWDs) and active galactic nuclei (AGN). However, in radiation-hydrodynamic simulations, overionization reduces line opacity and quenches the line force, which suppresses outflows. Here, we show that small-scale clumping can resolve this problem. Adopting the microclumping approximatio… ▽ More Radiation pressure on spectral lines is a promising mechanism for powering disc winds from accreting white dwarfs (AWDs) and active galactic nuclei (AGN). However, in radiation-hydrodynamic simulations, overionization reduces line opacity and quenches the line force, which suppresses outflows. Here, we show that small-scale clumping can resolve this problem. Adopting the microclumping approximation, our new simulations demonstrate that even modest volume filling factors ($f_V \sim 0.1-0.01$) can dramatically increase the wind mass-loss rate by lowering its ionization state -- raising $\dot{M}_{\rm wind}$ and yielding $\dot{M}_{\rm wind}/\dot{M}_{\rm acc}\!\gtrsim\!10^{-4}$ for such modest filling factors. Clumpy wind models produce the UV resonance lines that are absent from smooth wind models. They can also reprocess a significant fraction of the disc luminosity and thus dramatically modify the broad-band optical/UV SED. Given that theory and observations indicate that disc winds are intrinsically inhomogeneous, clumping offers a physically motivated solution. Together, these results provide the first robust, self-consistent demonstration that clumping can reconcile line-driven wind theory with observations across AWDs and AGNs. △ Less

Submitted 4 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025.

Comments: 9 pages, 5 figures, 1 table, accepted for publication in MNRAS

Electron impact excitation of Te IV and V and Level Resolved R-matrix Photoionization of Te I - IV with application to modelling of AT2017gfo

Authors: Leo P. Mulholland, Catherine A. Ramsbottom, Connor P. Ballance, Albert Sneppen, Stuart A. Sim

Abstract: Spectral modelling of kilonovae (KNe) require large amounts of collisional excitation and photoionization atomic data for lowly ionised (neutral, singly and doubly ionised) species of heavy elements. Much of the data currently used is calculated using approximate hydrogenic results or adopts semi-empirical formulae. We present atomic data for ions of tellurium (Te) computed using the well-known… ▽ More Spectral modelling of kilonovae (KNe) require large amounts of collisional excitation and photoionization atomic data for lowly ionised (neutral, singly and doubly ionised) species of heavy elements. Much of the data currently used is calculated using approximate hydrogenic results or adopts semi-empirical formulae. We present atomic data for ions of tellurium (Te) computed using the well-known $R$-matrix method. Results will also be presented for radiative and thermal collisions of Te IV and V, for which the required atomic data are also typically limited in the literature. The Multi-Configuration-Dirac-Hartree-Fock (MCDHF) method is used to produce model atomic structures and radiative rates. These model structures are then used to calculate electron-impact-excitation and photoionization cross-sections. The resulting excitation and radiative rates are further used in a collisional radiative model to produce synthetic spectra, which are compared with observations. We also investigate the possibility of Te IV contributing to the 1.08 $μ$m emission feature in the mid-epochs of AT2017gfo alongside the established P-Cygni feature of Sr II. △ Less

Submitted 20 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025.

Comments: Submitted to MNRAS

Journal ref: Mon Not R Astron Soc (2026)

Light Travel Time Effects in Kilonova Models

Authors: F. McNeill, S. A. Sim, C. E. Collins, L. J. Shingles, R. Damgaard, A. Sneppen, J. H. Gillanders

Abstract: The extremely rapid evolution of kilonovae results in spectra that change on an hourly basis. These spectra are key to understanding the processes occurring within the event, but this rapid evolution is an unfamiliar domain compared to other explosive transient events, such as supernovae. In particular, the most obvious P Cygni feature in the spectra of AT2017gfo -- commonly attributed to strontiu… ▽ More The extremely rapid evolution of kilonovae results in spectra that change on an hourly basis. These spectra are key to understanding the processes occurring within the event, but this rapid evolution is an unfamiliar domain compared to other explosive transient events, such as supernovae. In particular, the most obvious P Cygni feature in the spectra of AT2017gfo -- commonly attributed to strontium -- possesses an emission component that emerges after, and ultimately outlives, its associated absorption dip. This delay is theorised to arise from reverberation effects, wherein photons emitted earlier in the kilonova's evolution are scattered before reaching the observer, causing them to be detected at later times. We aim to examine how the finite speed of light -- and therefore the light travel time to an observer -- contributes to the shape and evolution of spectral features in kilonovae. Using a simple model, and tracking the length of the journey photons undertake to an observer, we are able to test the necessity of accounting for this time delay effect when modelling kilonovae. In periods where the photospheric temperature is rapidly evolving, we show spectra synthesised using a time independent approach are visually distinct from those where these time delay effects are accounted for. Therefore, in rapidly evolving events such as kilonovae, time dependence must be taken into account. △ Less

Submitted 22 January, 2026; v1 submitted 10 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025.

Comments: As accepted by MNRAS (2026 January 6th)

Journal ref: Mon Not R Astron Soc (2026)

A Diagnostic Kit for Optical Emission Lines Shaped by Accretion Disc Winds

Authors: Austen G. W. Wallis, Christian Knigge, James H. Matthews, Knox S. Long, Stuart A. Sim

Abstract: Blueshifted absorption is the classic spectroscopic signature of an accretion disc wind in X-ray binaries and cataclysmic variables (CVs). However, outflows can also create pure emission lines, especially at optical wavelengths. Therefore, developing other outflow diagnostics for these types of lines is worthwhile. With this in mind, we construct a systematic grid of 3645 synthetic wind-formed H-a… ▽ More Blueshifted absorption is the classic spectroscopic signature of an accretion disc wind in X-ray binaries and cataclysmic variables (CVs). However, outflows can also create pure emission lines, especially at optical wavelengths. Therefore, developing other outflow diagnostics for these types of lines is worthwhile. With this in mind, we construct a systematic grid of 3645 synthetic wind-formed H-alpha line profiles for CVs with the radiative transfer code SIROCCO. Our grid yields a variety of line shapes: symmetric, asymmetric, single- to quadruple-peaked, and even P-Cygni profiles. About 20% of these lines -- our `Gold' sample -- have strengths and widths consistent with observations. We use this grid to test a recently proposed method for identifying wind-formed emission lines based on deviations in the wing profile shape: the `excess equivalent width diagnostic diagram'. We find that our `Gold' sample can preferentially populate the suggested `wind regions' of this diagram. However, the method is highly sensitive to the adopted definition of the line profile `wing'. Hence, we propose a refined definition based on the full-width at half maximum to improve the interpretability of the diagnostic diagram. Furthermore, we define an approximate scaling relation for the strengths of wind-formed CV emission lines in terms of the outflow parameters. This relation provides a fast way to assess whether -- and what kind of -- outflow can produce an observed emission line. All our wind-based models are open-source and we provide an easy-to-use web-based tool to browse our full set of H-alpha spectral profiles. △ Less

Submitted 2 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025.

Comments: 20 pages, 14 figures. Published in MNRAS

Monte-Carlo radiation hydrodynamic simulations of line-driven disc winds: relaxing the isothermal approximation

Authors: Amin Mosallanezhad, Christian Knigge, Nicolas Scepi, James H. Matthews, Knox S. Long, Stuart A. Sim, Austen Wallis

Abstract: Disc winds play a crucial role in many accreting astrophysical systems across all scales. In accreting white dwarfs (AWDs) and active galactic nuclei (AGN), radiation pressure on spectral lines is a promising wind-driving mechanism. However, the efficiency of line driving is extremely sensitive to the ionization state of the flow, making it difficult to construct a reliable physical picture of the… ▽ More Disc winds play a crucial role in many accreting astrophysical systems across all scales. In accreting white dwarfs (AWDs) and active galactic nuclei (AGN), radiation pressure on spectral lines is a promising wind-driving mechanism. However, the efficiency of line driving is extremely sensitive to the ionization state of the flow, making it difficult to construct a reliable physical picture of these winds. Recently, we presented the first radiation-hydrodynamic (RHD) simulations for AWDs that incorporated detailed, multi-dimensional ionization calculations via fully frequency-dependent radiative transfer, using the Sirocco code coupled to PLUTO. These simulations produced much weaker line-driven winds (Mdot_wind / Mdot_acc < 1e-5 for our adopted parameters) than earlier studies using more approximate treatments of ionization and radiative transfer (which yielded Mdot_wind / Mdot_acc ~ 1e-4). One remaining limitation of our work was the assumption of an isothermal outflow. Here, we relax this by adopting an ideal gas equation of state and explicitly solving for the multi-dimensional temperature structure of the flow. In the AWD setting, accounting for the thermal state of the wind does not change the overall conclusions drawn from the isothermal approximation. Our new simulations confirm the line-driving efficiency problem: the predicted outflows are too highly ionized, meaning they neither create optimal driving conditions nor reproduce the observed ultraviolet wind signatures. Possible solutions include wind clumping on sub-grid scales, a softer-than-expected spectral energy distribution, or additional driving mechanisms. With the physics now built into our simulations, we are well-equipped to also explore line-driven disc winds in AGN. △ Less

Submitted 3 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025.

Comments: 13 pages, 6 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

Multidimensional Nebular-Phase Calculations of Dynamically-Driven Double-Degenerate Double-Detonation Models for Type Ia Supernovae

Authors: J. M. Pollin, S. A. Sim, L. J. Shingles, R. Pakmor, F. P. Callan, C. E. Collins, F. K. Roepke, L. A. Kwok, A. Holas, S. Srivastav

Abstract: The dynamically-driven double-degenerate double-detonation model has emerged as a promising progenitor candidate for Type Ia supernovae. In this scenario, the primary white dwarf ignites due to dynamical interaction with a companion white dwarf, which may also undergo a detonation. Consequently, two scenarios exist: one in which the secondary survives and another in which both white dwarfs detonat… ▽ More The dynamically-driven double-degenerate double-detonation model has emerged as a promising progenitor candidate for Type Ia supernovae. In this scenario, the primary white dwarf ignites due to dynamical interaction with a companion white dwarf, which may also undergo a detonation. Consequently, two scenarios exist: one in which the secondary survives and another in which both white dwarfs detonate. In either case, substantial departures from spherical symmetry are imprinted on the ejecta. Here, we compute full non-local thermodynamic equilibrium nebular-phase spectra in 1D and 3D to probe the innermost asymmetries. Our simulations reveal that the multidimensional structures significantly alter the overall ionisation balance, width and velocity of features, especially when the secondary detonates. In this scenario, some element distributions may produce orientation-dependent line profiles that can be centrally peaked from some viewing-angles and somewhat flat-topped from others. Comparison to observations reveals that both scenarios produce most observed features from the optical to mid-infrared. However, the current model realisations do not consistently reproduce all line shapes or relative strengths, and yield prominent optical Ar III emission which is inconsistent with the data. When the secondary detonates, including 3D effects improves the average agreement with observations, however when compared to observations, particularly weak optical Co III emission and the presence of optical O I and near-infrared S I challenge its viability for normal Type Ia supernovae. Thus, overall, our comparisons with normal Type Ia's tentatively favour detonation of only the primary white dwarf, but we stress that more model realisations and mid-infrared observations are needed. △ Less

Submitted 16 April, 2026; v1 submitted 7 July, 2025; originally announced July 2025.

Comments: 30 pages, 24 figures. MNRAS Accepted

Journal ref: Mon Not R Astron Soc (2026)

Effect of positronium on the $γ$-ray spectra and energy deposition in Type Ia supernovae

Authors: Anirban Dutta, Andrew Fullard, Wolfgang Kerzendorf, J. T. O'Brien, Cecelia Powers, Stuart A Sim, Andreas Flörs, Or Graur

Abstract: Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) are powered by the radioactive decay of isotopes such as $^{56}$Ni and $^{56}$Co, making their $γ$-ray spectra useful probes of the explosion mechanism and ejecta structure. Accurate interpretation of $γ$-ray observables, including line ratios and continuum fluxes, requires a detailed understanding of the microphysical processes that shape the spectra. One such process… ▽ More Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) are powered by the radioactive decay of isotopes such as $^{56}$Ni and $^{56}$Co, making their $γ$-ray spectra useful probes of the explosion mechanism and ejecta structure. Accurate interpretation of $γ$-ray observables, including line ratios and continuum fluxes, requires a detailed understanding of the microphysical processes that shape the spectra. One such process is positronium formation during electron-positron annihilation, which can redistribute flux from the 511 keV line into the surrounding continuum. To assess the impact of positronium on the emergent spectra, we developed a new open-source module TARDIS-HE, for time-dependent three-dimensional $γ$-ray transport, integrated into the radiative transfer code TARDIS. The code simulates $γ$-ray spectra and light curves from one-dimensional supernova ejecta models and allows for flexible incorporation of decay chains and opacity treatments. Using TARDIS-HE, we explore the effect of positronium formation by varying the positronium fraction from 0 % to 100 %, and assuming an extreme case where 75 % of positronium decays result in three-photon emission. We find that full positronium formation can reduce the 511 keV line flux by approximately 70 % and modestly enhance energy deposition by up to 2 % at around 100 days post-explosion, compared to models without positronium. These results demonstrate that while the effect is not dominant, positronium formation introduces measurable changes to $γ$-ray observables. Future observations with missions such as the Compton Spectrometer and Imager (COSI) may offer constraints on positronium formation in SNe Ia and help refine models of their radioactive energy transport. △ Less

Submitted 28 May, 2025; originally announced May 2025.

Comments: Submitted to the Astrophysical Journal. Comments welcome!

The asymmetry of white dwarf double detonations and the observed scatter around the Phillips relation

Authors: Alexander Holas, Friedrich K. Roepke, Rüdiger Pakmor, Fionntan P. Callan, Josh Pollin, Stuart A. Sim, Christine E. Collins, Luke J. Shingles, Javier Morán-Fraile

Abstract: Recent Type Ia supernova (SN Ia) simulations featuring a double detonation scenario have managed to reproduce the overall trend of the Phillips relation reasonably well. However, most, if not all, multidimensional simulations struggle to reproduce the scatter of observed SNe around this relation, exceeding it substantially. In this study, we investigate whether the excessive scatter around the Phi… ▽ More Recent Type Ia supernova (SN Ia) simulations featuring a double detonation scenario have managed to reproduce the overall trend of the Phillips relation reasonably well. However, most, if not all, multidimensional simulations struggle to reproduce the scatter of observed SNe around this relation, exceeding it substantially. In this study, we investigate whether the excessive scatter around the Phillips relation can be caused by an off-center ignition of the carbon-oxygen (CO) core in the double detonation scenario and if this can help constrain possible SN Ia explosion channels. We simulated the detonation of three different initial CO white dwarfs of $0.9$, $1.0$, and $1.1\,M_\odot$, artificially ignited at systematically offset locations using the Arepo code. After nucleosynthetic postprocessing, we generated synthetic observables using the Artis code and compared these results against observational data and models of other works. We find that our simulations produce synthetic observables well within the range of the observed data in terms of viewing angle scatter. The majority of the viewing angle variability seems to be caused by line blanketing in the blue wavelengths of intermediate-mass elements and lighter iron-group elements, which are asymmetrically distributed in the outer layers of the ashes. Our results suggest that although the off-center ignition of the CO introduces substantial line of sight effects, it is not responsible for the excessive viewing angle scatter observed in other models. Instead, this effect seems to be caused by the detonation ashes from the rather massive helium (He) shells in current state-of-the-art models. Further reducing the He-shell masses of double detonation progenitors may be able to alleviate this issue and yield observables that reproduce the Phillips relation. △ Less

Submitted 14 May, 2025; originally announced May 2025.

Comments: 19 pages, 12 figures, accepted for publication in A&A

Journal ref: A&A 698, A269 (2025)

Little red dots as young supermassive black holes in dense ionized cocoons

Authors: V. Rusakov, D. Watson, G. P. Nikopoulos, G. Brammer, R. Gottumukkala, T. Harvey, K. E. Heintz, R. Damgaard, S. A. Sim, A. Sneppen, A. P. Vijayan, N. Adams, D. Austin, C. J. Conselice, C. M. Goolsby, S. Toft, J. Witstok

Abstract: The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has uncovered many compact galaxies at high redshift with broad hydrogen and helium lines, including the enigmatic population of little red dots (LRDs). The nature of these galaxies is debated and is attributed to supermassive black holes (SMBHs) or intense star formation. They exhibit unusual properties for SMBHs, such as black holes that are overmassive for… ▽ More The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has uncovered many compact galaxies at high redshift with broad hydrogen and helium lines, including the enigmatic population of little red dots (LRDs). The nature of these galaxies is debated and is attributed to supermassive black holes (SMBHs) or intense star formation. They exhibit unusual properties for SMBHs, such as black holes that are overmassive for their host galaxies and extremely weak X-ray and radio emission. Here we show that in most objects studied with the highest-quality JWST spectra, the lines are broadened by electron scattering with a narrow intrinsic core. The data require very high electron column densities and compact sizes (light days), which, when coupled with their high luminosities, can be explained only by SMBH accretion. The narrow intrinsic line cores imply black hole masses of $10^{5-7}$ $M_{\odot}$, two orders of magnitude lower than previous estimates. These are the lowest mass black holes known at high redshift, to our knowledge, and suggest a population of young SMBHs. They are enshrouded in a dense cocoon of ionized gas producing broad lines from which they are accreting close to the Eddington limit, with very mild neutral outflows. Reprocessed nebular emission from this cocoon dominates the optical spectrum, explaining most LRD spectral characteristics, including the weak radio and X-ray emission. △ Less

Submitted 2 February, 2026; v1 submitted 20 March, 2025; originally announced March 2025.

Comments: 47 pages, 24 figures, 3 tables. Manuscript accepted in Nature

Journal ref: Nature (2026), Volume 649, Issue 8097, pp. 574-579

Electron-Impact Excitation of Zirconium I-III in support of Neutron Star Merger Diagnostics

Authors: M. McCann, C. P. Ballance, F. McNeill, S. A. Sim, C. A. Ramsbottom

Abstract: Recent observation and analysis of kilonovae (KNe) spectra as a result of neutron star mergers require accurate and complete atomic structure and collisional data for interpretation. Ideally, the atomic datasets for elements predicted to be abundant in the ejecta should be experimentally calibrated. For near-neutral ion stages of Zirconium in particular, the A-values and the associated excitation/… ▽ More Recent observation and analysis of kilonovae (KNe) spectra as a result of neutron star mergers require accurate and complete atomic structure and collisional data for interpretation. Ideally, the atomic datasets for elements predicted to be abundant in the ejecta should be experimentally calibrated. For near-neutral ion stages of Zirconium in particular, the A-values and the associated excitation/de-excitation rates are required from collision calculations built upon accurate structure models. The atomic orbitals required to perform the structure calculations may be calculated using a Multi-Configuration-Dirac-Fock (MCDF) approximation implemented within the General Relativistic Atomic Structure Package (GRASP0). Optimized sets of relativistic atomic orbitals are then imported into electron-impact excitation collision calculations. A relativistic R-matrix formulation within the Dirac Atomic R-matrix Code (DARC) is employed to compute collision strengths, which are subsequently Maxwellian convolved to produce excitation/de-excitation rates for a wide range of electron temperatures. These atomic datasets subsequently provide the foundations for non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) collisional-radiative models. In this work all these computations have been carried out for the first three ion stages of Zirconium (Zr I-III) with the data further interfaced with collisional-radiative and radiative transfer codes to produce synthetic spectra which can be compared with observation. △ Less

Submitted 20 March, 2025; originally announced March 2025.

Comments: 17 pages, 11 figures

NLTE spectral modelling for a carbon-oxygen and helium white-dwarf merger as a Ca-rich transient candidate

Authors: F. P. Callan, A. Holas, J. Morán-Fraile, S. A. Sim, C. E. Collins, L. J. Shingles, J. M. Pollin, F. K. Roepke, R. Pakmor, F. R. N. Schneider

Abstract: We carry out NLTE (non local thermodynamic equilibrium) radiative transfer simulations to determine whether explosion during the merger of a carbon-oxygen (CO) white dwarf (WD) with a helium (He) WD can reproduce the characteristic Ca II/[Ca II] and He I lines observed in Ca-rich transients. Our study is based on a 1D representation of a hydrodynamic simulation of a 0.6 $M_{\odot}$ CO + 0.4… ▽ More We carry out NLTE (non local thermodynamic equilibrium) radiative transfer simulations to determine whether explosion during the merger of a carbon-oxygen (CO) white dwarf (WD) with a helium (He) WD can reproduce the characteristic Ca II/[Ca II] and He I lines observed in Ca-rich transients. Our study is based on a 1D representation of a hydrodynamic simulation of a 0.6 $M_{\odot}$ CO + 0.4 $M_{\odot}$ He WD merger. We calculate both photospheric and nebular-phase spectra including treatment for non-thermal electrons, as is required for accurate modelling of He I and [Ca II]. Consistent with Ca-rich transients, our simulation predicts a nebular spectrum dominated by emission from [Ca II] 7291, 7324 angstrom and the Ca II near-infrared (NIR) triplet. The photospheric-phase synthetic spectrum also exhibits a strong Ca II NIR triplet, prominent optical absorption due to He I 5876 angstrom and He I 10830 angstrom in the NIR, as is commonly observed for Ca-rich transients. Overall, our results therefore suggest that CO+He WD mergers are a promising channel for Ca-rich transients. However, the current simulation overpredicts some He I features, in particular both He I 6678 and 7065 angstrom and shows a significant contribution from Ti II, which results in a spectral energy distribution that is substantially redder than most Ca-rich transients at peak. Additionally the Ca II nebular emission features are too broad. Future work should investigate if these discrepancies can be resolved by considering full 3D models and exploring a range of CO+He WD binary configurations. △ Less

Submitted 30 December, 2025; v1 submitted 15 March, 2025; originally announced March 2025.

Comments: 8 pages, 5 figures

Journal ref: A&A 702, A29 (2025)

On the use of the Axelrod formula for thermal electron collisions in Astrophysical Modelling

Authors: Leo P. Mulholland, Steven J. Bromley, Connor P. Ballance, Stuart A. Sim, Catherine A. Ramsbottom

Abstract: The Axelrod approximation is widely used in astrophysical modelling codes to evaluate electron-impact excitation effective collision strengths for forbidden transitions. Approximate methods such as this are a necessity for many heavy elements with open shells where collisional data is either non existent or sparse as the use of more robust methods prove prohibitively expensive. Atomic data for suc… ▽ More The Axelrod approximation is widely used in astrophysical modelling codes to evaluate electron-impact excitation effective collision strengths for forbidden transitions. Approximate methods such as this are a necessity for many heavy elements with open shells where collisional data is either non existent or sparse as the use of more robust methods prove prohibitively expensive. Atomic data for such forbidden transitions are essential for producing full collisional radiative models that do not assume Local-Thermodynamic-Equilibrium (LTE). In this short work we repeat the optimization of the simple Axelrod formula for a large number of $R$-matrix data sets, ranging from Fe and Ni to the first r-process peak elements of Sr, Y and Zr, to higher Z systems Te, W, Pt and Au. We show that the approximate treatment of forbidden transitions can be a significant source of inaccuracy in such collisional radiative models. We find a large variance of the optimized coefficients for differing systems and charge states, although some general trends can be seen based on the orbital structure of the ground-state-configurations. These trends could potentially inform better estimates for future calculations for elements where $R$-matrix data is not available. △ Less

Submitted 16 September, 2025; v1 submitted 7 March, 2025; originally announced March 2025.

Comments: Accepted Manuscript (published in June 2025 @ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jqsrt.2025.109545)

Luminosity predictions for the first three ionisation stages of W, Pt and Au to probe potential sources of emission in kilonova

Authors: M. McCann, L. P. Mulholland, Z. Xiong, C. A. Ramsbottom, C. P. Ballance, O. Just, A. Bauswein, G. Martínez-Pinedo, F. McNeill, S. A. Sim

Abstract: A large number of R-matrix calculations of electron impact excitation for heavy elements (Z > 70) have been performed in recent years for applications in fusion and astrophysics research. With the expanding interest in heavy ions due to kilonova (KN) events such as AT2017gfo and AT2023vfi, this new data can be utilised for the diagnosis and study of observed KN spectra. In this work recently compu… ▽ More A large number of R-matrix calculations of electron impact excitation for heavy elements (Z > 70) have been performed in recent years for applications in fusion and astrophysics research. With the expanding interest in heavy ions due to kilonova (KN) events such as AT2017gfo and AT2023vfi, this new data can be utilised for the diagnosis and study of observed KN spectra. In this work recently computed electron-impact excitation effective collision strengths are used, for the first three ionisation stages of tungsten (W, Z = 74), platinum (Pt, Z = 78) and gold (Au, Z = 79), to construct basic collisional radiative models tailored for the late stage nebular phases of KN. Line luminosities are calculated at a range of electron temperatures and densities and the strengths of these lines for a representative ion mass are compared. For the case of W III, these optically thin intensities are additionally used to constrain the mass of this ion in both AT2017gfo and AT2023vfi. Comparing with theoretical predictions of nucleosynthesis yields from neutron-star merger simulations, broad agreement with the inferred ion masses of W is found. Furthermore, we highlight the value of W measurements by showing that the abundance of other groups of elements and outflow properties are constrained by exploiting theoretically motivated correlations between the abundance of W and that of lanthanides or third r-process peak elements. Based on simple estimates, we also show that constraints on the distribution of tungsten in the ejecta may be accessible through the line shape, which may also yield information on the neutron-star merger remnant evolution. △ Less

Submitted 17 February, 2025; v1 submitted 25 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024.

Comments: Accepted Manuscript

Non-LTE radiative transfer simulations: Improved agreement of the double detonation with normal Type Ia supernovae

Authors: Christine E. Collins, Luke J. Shingles, Stuart A. Sim, Fionntan P. Callan, Sabrina Gronow, Wolfgang Hillebrandt, Markus Kromer, Ruediger Pakmor, Friedrich K. Roepke

Abstract: The double detonation is a widely discussed explosion mechanism for Type Ia supernovae, whereby a helium shell detonation ignites a secondary detonation in the carbon/oxygen core of a white dwarf. Even for modern models that invoke relatively small He shell masses, many previous studies have found that the products of the helium shell detonation lead to discrepancies with normal Type Ia supernovae… ▽ More The double detonation is a widely discussed explosion mechanism for Type Ia supernovae, whereby a helium shell detonation ignites a secondary detonation in the carbon/oxygen core of a white dwarf. Even for modern models that invoke relatively small He shell masses, many previous studies have found that the products of the helium shell detonation lead to discrepancies with normal Type Ia supernovae, such as strong Ti II absorption features, extremely red light curves and too large a variation with viewing direction. It has been suggested that non local thermodynamic equilibrium (non-LTE) effects may help to reduce these discrepancies with observations. Here we carry out full non-LTE radiative transfer simulations for a recent double detonation model with a relatively small helium shell mass of 0.05 M$_\odot$. We construct 1D models representative of directions in a 3D explosion model to give an indication of viewing angle dependence. The full non-LTE treatment leads to improved agreement between the models and observations. The light curves become less red, due to reduced absorption by the helium shell detonation products, since these species are more highly ionised. Additionally, the expected variation with observer direction is reduced. The full non-LTE treatment shows promising improvements, and reduces the discrepancies between the double detonation models and observations of normal Type Ia supernovae. △ Less

Submitted 18 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024.

Comments: Submitted to MNRAS

No rungs attached: A distance-ladder free determination of the Hubble constant through type II supernova spectral modelling

Authors: Christian Vogl, Stefan Taubenberger, Géza Csörnyei, Bruno Leibundgut, Wolfgang E. Kerzendorf, Stuart A. Sim, Stéphane Blondin, Andreas Flörs, Alexander Holas, Joshua V. Shields, Jason Spyromilio, Sherry H. Suyu, Wolfgang Hillebrandt

Abstract: The ongoing discrepancy in the Hubble constant ($H_0$) estimates obtained through local distance ladder methods and early universe observations poses a significant challenge to the $Λ$CDM model, suggesting potential new physics. Type II supernovae (SNe II) offer a promising technique for determining $H_0$ in the local universe independently of the traditional distance ladder approach, opening up a… ▽ More The ongoing discrepancy in the Hubble constant ($H_0$) estimates obtained through local distance ladder methods and early universe observations poses a significant challenge to the $Λ$CDM model, suggesting potential new physics. Type II supernovae (SNe II) offer a promising technique for determining $H_0$ in the local universe independently of the traditional distance ladder approach, opening up a complimentary path for testing this discrepancy. We aim to provide the first $H_0$ estimate using the tailored expanding photosphere method (EPM) applied to SNe II, made possible by recent advancements in spectral modelling that enhance its precision and efficiency. Our tailored EPM measurement utilizes a spectral emulator to interpolate between radiative transfer models calculated with TARDIS, allowing us to fit supernova spectra efficiently and derive self-consistent values for luminosity-related parameters. We apply the method on public data for ten SNe II at redshifts between 0.01 and 0.04. Our analysis demonstrates that the tailored EPM allows for $H_0$ measurements with precision comparable to the most competitive established techniques, even when applied to literature data not designed for cosmological applications. We find an independent $H_0$ value of $74.9\pm1.9$ (stat) km/s/Mpc, which is consistent with most current local measurements. Considering dominant sources of systematic effects, we conclude that our systematic uncertainty is comparable to or less than the current statistical uncertainty. This proof-of-principle study highlights the potential of the tailored EPM as a robust and precise tool for investigating the Hubble tension independently of the local distance ladder. Observations of SNe II tailored to $H_0$ estimation can make this an even more powerful tool by improving the precision and by allowing us to better understand and control systematic uncertainties. △ Less

Submitted 7 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024.

Comments: 40 pages, 57 figures, 4 tables; submitted to A&A

Journal ref: A&A 702, A41 (2025)

Helium as an Indicator of the Neutron-Star Merger Remnant Lifetime and its Potential for Equation of State Constraints

Authors: Albert Sneppen, Oliver Just, Andreas Bauswein, Rasmus Damgaard, Darach Watson, Luke J. Shingles, Christine E. Collins, Stuart A. Sim, Zewei Xiong, Gabriel Martinez-Pinedo, Theodoros Soultanis, Vimal Vijayan

Abstract: The time until black hole formation in a binary neutron-star (NS) merger contains invaluable information about the nuclear equation of state (EoS) but has thus far been difficult to measure. We propose a new way to constrain the merger remnant's NS lifetime, which is based on the tendency of the NS remnant neutrino-driven winds to enrich the ejected material with helium. Based on the He I… ▽ More The time until black hole formation in a binary neutron-star (NS) merger contains invaluable information about the nuclear equation of state (EoS) but has thus far been difficult to measure. We propose a new way to constrain the merger remnant's NS lifetime, which is based on the tendency of the NS remnant neutrino-driven winds to enrich the ejected material with helium. Based on the He I $λ1083.3$ nm line, we show that the feature around 800-1200 nm in AT2017gfo at 4.4 days seems inconsistent with a helium mass fraction of $X_{\mathrm{He}} \gtrsim 0.05$ in the polar ejecta. Our recent neutrino-hydrodynamic simulations of merger remnants are only compatible with this limit if the NS remnant collapses within 20-30 ms. Such a short lifetime implies that the total binary mass of GW170817, $M_\mathrm{\rm tot}$, lay close to the threshold binary mass for direct gravitational collapse, $M_\mathrm{thres}$, for which we estimate $M_{\mathrm{thres}}\lesssim 2.93 M_\odot$. This upper bound on $M_\mathrm{thres}$ yields upper limits on the radii and maximum mass of cold, non-rotating NSs, which rule out simultaneously large values for both quantities. In combination with causality arguments, this result implies a maximum NS mass of $M_\mathrm{max}\lesssim2.3 M_\odot$. The combination of all limits constrains the radii of 1.6 M$_\odot$ NSs to about 12$\pm$1 km for $M_\mathrm{max}$ = 2.0 M$_\odot$ and 11.5$\pm$1 km for $M_\mathrm{max}$ = 2.15 M$_\odot$. This $\sim2$ km allowable range then tightens significantly for $M_\mathrm{max}$ above $\approx2.15$ M$_\odot$. This rules out a significant number of current EoS models. The short NS lifetime also implies that a black-hole torus, not a highly magnetized NS, was the central engine powering the relativistic jet of GRB170817A. Our work motivates future developments... [abridged] △ Less

Submitted 20 February, 2026; v1 submitted 5 November, 2024; originally announced November 2024.

Comments: 36 pages, 22 figures, 3 tables. PRD, in press

Synthetic Light Curves and Spectra for the Photospheric Phase of a 3D Stripped-Envelope Supernova Explosion Model

Authors: Thomas Maunder, Fionntan P. Callan, Stuart A. Sim, Alexander Heger, Bernhard Müller

Abstract: We present synthetic light curves and spectra from three-dimensional (3D) Monte Carlo radiative transfer simulations based on a 3D core-collapse supernova explosion model of an ultra-stripped $3.5\,\mathrm{M}_{\odot}$ progenitor. Our calculations predict a fast and faint transient with $Δm_{15} \sim 1\texttt{-} 2\,\mathrm{mag}$ and peak bolometric luminosity between $-15.3\,\mathrm{mag}$ and… ▽ More We present synthetic light curves and spectra from three-dimensional (3D) Monte Carlo radiative transfer simulations based on a 3D core-collapse supernova explosion model of an ultra-stripped $3.5\,\mathrm{M}_{\odot}$ progenitor. Our calculations predict a fast and faint transient with $Δm_{15} \sim 1\texttt{-} 2\,\mathrm{mag}$ and peak bolometric luminosity between $-15.3\,\mathrm{mag}$ and $-16.4\,\mathrm{mag}$. Due to a large-scale unipolar asymmetry in the distribution of $^{56}\mathrm{Ni}$, there is a pronounced viewing-angle dependence with about $1\,\mathrm{mag}$ difference between the directions of highest and lowest luminosity. The predicted spectra for this rare class of explosions do not yet match any observed counterpart. They are dominated by prominent Mg~II lines, but features from O, C, Si, and Ca are also found. In particular, the O~I line at \wl{7}{774} appears as a blended feature together with Mg~II emission. Our model is not only faster and fainter than the observed Ib/c supernova population, but also shows a correlation between higher peak luminosity and larger $Δm_{15}$ that is not present in observational samples. A possible explanation is that the unusually small ejecta mass of our model accentuates the viewing-angle dependence of the photometry. We suggest that the viewing-angle dependence of the photometry may be used to constrain asymmetries in explosion models of more typical stripped-envelope supernova progenitors in future. △ Less

Submitted 10 October, 2025; v1 submitted 28 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024.

Comments: 14 pages, 18 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

SIROCCO: A Publicly Available Monte Carlo Ionization and Radiative Transfer Code for Astrophysical Outflows

Authors: James H. Matthews, Knox S. Long, Christian Knigge, Stuart A. Sim, Edward J. Parkinson, Nick Higginbottom, Samuel W. Mangham, Nicolas Scepi, Austen Wallis, Henrietta A. Hewitt, Amin Mosallanezhad

Abstract: Outflows are critical components of many astrophysical systems, including accreting compact binaries and active galactic nuclei (AGN). These outflows can significantly affect a system's evolution and alter its observational appearance by reprocessing the radiation produced by the central engine. Sirocco (Simulating Ionization and Radiation in Outflows Created by Compact Objects - or "the code form… ▽ More Outflows are critical components of many astrophysical systems, including accreting compact binaries and active galactic nuclei (AGN). These outflows can significantly affect a system's evolution and alter its observational appearance by reprocessing the radiation produced by the central engine. Sirocco (Simulating Ionization and Radiation in Outflows Created by Compact Objects - or "the code formerly known as Python") is a Sobolev-based Monte Carlo ionization and radiative transfer code. It is designed to simulate the spectra produced by any system with an azimuthally-symmetric outflow, from spherical stellar winds to rotating, biconical accretion disc winds. Wind models can either be parametrized or imported, e.g. from hydrodynamical simulations. The radiation sources include an optically thick accretion disc and various central sources with flexible spectra and geometries. The code tracks the "photon packets" produced by the sources in any given simulation as they traverse and interact with the wind. The code assumes radiative near-equilibrium, so the thermal and ionization state can be determined iteratively from these interactions. Once the physical properties in the wind have converged, Sirocco can be used to generate synthetic spectra at a series of observer sightlines. Here, we describe the physical assumptions, operation, performance and limitations of the code. We validate it against tardis, cmfgen and cloudy, finding good agreement, and present illustrative synthetic spectra from disc winds in cataclysmic variables, tidal disruption events, AGN and X-ray binaries. Sirocco is publicly available on GitHub, alongside its associated data, documentation and sample input files covering a wide range of astrophysical applications. △ Less

Submitted 10 March, 2025; v1 submitted 25 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024.

Comments: 26 pages, 16 figures. Published in MNRAS. This is the release paper for the SIROCCO code, which can be found at https://github.com/sirocco-rt/sirocco with links to documentation. Underlying data and figure scripts available at https://github.com/sirocco-rt/release-models -- comments on the code, paper or documentation are welcomed

Journal ref: MNRAS (2025), Volume 536, Issue 1, Pages 879-904

Collisional and Radiative Data for Tellurium ions in Kilonovae modelling and Laboratory Benchmarks

Authors: Leo Patrick Mulholland, Fiona McNeill, Stuart A. Sim, Connor P. Ballance, Catherine A. Ramsbottom

Abstract: Tellurium is a primary candidate for the identification of the 2.1 $μ$m emission line in kilonovae (KNe) spectra AT2017gfo and GRB230307A. Despite this, there is currently an insufficient amount of atomic data available for this species. We calculate the required atomic structure and collisional data, particularly the data required for accurate Non-Local-Thermodynamic-Equilibrium (NLTE) modelling… ▽ More Tellurium is a primary candidate for the identification of the 2.1 $μ$m emission line in kilonovae (KNe) spectra AT2017gfo and GRB230307A. Despite this, there is currently an insufficient amount of atomic data available for this species. We calculate the required atomic structure and collisional data, particularly the data required for accurate Non-Local-Thermodynamic-Equilibrium (NLTE) modelling of the low temperatures and densities in KNe. We use a Multi-Configurational-Dirac-Hartree-Fock method to produce optimised one-electron orbitals for Te {\sc i}-{\sc iii}. As a result energy levels and Einstein A-coefficients for Te {\sc i}-{\sc iii} have been calculated. These orbitals are then employed within Dirac $R$-matrix collision calculations to provide electron-impact-excitation collision strengths that were subsequently averaged according to a thermal Maxwellian distribution. Subsequent \textsc{tardis} simulations using this new atomic data reveal no significant changes to the synthetic spectra due to the very minor contribution of Te at early epochs. NLTE simulations with the ColRadPy package reveal optically thin spectra consistent with the increasing prominence of the Te {\sc iii} 2.1 $μ$m line as the KNe ejecta cools. This is reinforced by the estimation of luminosities at nebular KNe conditions. New line ratios for both observation and laboratory benchmarks of the atomic data are proposed. △ Less

Submitted 8 October, 2024; originally announced October 2024.

Comments: Accepted Manuscript

Exploring the range of impacts of helium in the spectra of double detonation models for Type Ia supernovae

Authors: F. P. Callan, C. E. Collins, S. A. Sim, L. J. Shingles, R. Pakmor, S. Srivastav, J. M. Pollin, S. Gronow, F. K. Roepke, I. R. Seitenzahl

Abstract: Models of sub-Chandrasekhar mass double detonations for Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) suggest a distinguishing property of this scenario is unburnt helium in the outer ejecta. However, modern explosion simulations suggest there may be significant variations in its mass and velocity distribution. We recently presented a NLTE (non local thermodynamic equilibrium) radiative transfer simulation for one… ▽ More Models of sub-Chandrasekhar mass double detonations for Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) suggest a distinguishing property of this scenario is unburnt helium in the outer ejecta. However, modern explosion simulations suggest there may be significant variations in its mass and velocity distribution. We recently presented a NLTE (non local thermodynamic equilibrium) radiative transfer simulation for one realisation of the double detonation scenario with a modest He mass (0.018 M${\odot}$) present in the ejecta at relatively high velocities (${\sim}18000\,\mathrm{km}\,\mathrm{s}^{-1}$). That simulation predicted a He I 10830$\,Å$ feature blueward of Mg II 10927$\,Å$ consistent with near-infrared observations of "transitional" SNe Ia. To demonstrate the expected diversity in the helium signature, here we present a calculation for a double detonation model with a higher He mass (${\sim}$0.04 M${\odot}$) ejected at lower velocities (${\sim}13000\,\mathrm{km}\,\mathrm{s}^{-1}$). Despite our simulation predicting no clear optical or 2 micron helium features, a strong and persistent He I 10830$\,Å$ absorption is present. The feature appears at wavelengths consistent with the extended blue wing of the Mg II 10927$\,Å$ feature sometimes present in observations, suggesting this is a helium spectral signature (although for this particular model it is too strong and persistent to be consistent with normal SNe Ia). The significant differences in He I 10830$\,Å$ predicted by the two simulations suggests helium spectral signatures likely show significant variation throughout the SNe Ia population. This motivates further work to use this observable signature to test the parameter space for double detonation models. △ Less

Submitted 8 May, 2025; v1 submitted 6 August, 2024; originally announced August 2024.

Comments: 11 pages, 5 figures. Lightcurves and spectra available at https://hesma.h-its.org

Journal ref: Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Volume 539, Issue 2, May 2025, Pages 1404 to 1413

On the fate of the secondary white dwarf in double-degenerate double-detonation Type Ia supernovae -- II. 3D synthetic observables

Authors: J. M. Pollin, S. A. Sim, R. Pakmor, F. P. Callan, C. E. Collins, L. J. Shingles, F. K. Roepke, S. Srivastav

Abstract: A leading model for Type Ia supernovae involves the double-detonation of a sub-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarf. Double-detonations arise when a surface helium shell detonation generates shockwaves that trigger a core detonation; this mechanism may be triggered via accretion or during the merger of binaries. Most previous double-detonation simulations only included the primary white dwarf; however,… ▽ More A leading model for Type Ia supernovae involves the double-detonation of a sub-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarf. Double-detonations arise when a surface helium shell detonation generates shockwaves that trigger a core detonation; this mechanism may be triggered via accretion or during the merger of binaries. Most previous double-detonation simulations only included the primary white dwarf; however, the fate of the secondary has significant observational consequences. Recently, hydrodynamic simulations accounted for the companion in double-degenerate double-detonation mergers. In the merger of a 1.05$\text{M}_{\odot}$ primary white dwarf and 0.7$\text{M}_{\odot}$ secondary white dwarf, the primary consistently detonates while the fate of the secondary remains uncertain. We consider two versions of this scenario, one in which the secondary survives and another in which it detonates. We present the first 3D radiative transfer calculations for these models and show that the synthetic observables for both models are similar and match properties of the peculiar 02es-like subclass of Type Ia supernovae. Our calculations show angle dependencies sensitive to the companion's fate, and we can obtain a closer spectroscopic match to normal Type Ia supernovae when the secondary detonates and the effects of helium detonation ash are minimised. The asymmetry in the width-luminosity relationship is comparable to previous double-detonation models, but the overall spread is increased with a secondary detonation. The secondary detonation has a meaningful impact on all synthetic observables; however, multidimensional nebular phase calculations are needed to support or rule out either model as a likely explanation for Type Ia supernovae. △ Less

Submitted 1 August, 2024; originally announced August 2024.

Comments: 17 pages, 19 figures, MNRAS accepted

Helium features are inconsistent with the spectral evolution of the kilonova AT2017gfo

Authors: Albert Sneppen, Rasmus Damgaard, Darach Watson, Christine E. Collins, Luke Shingles, Stuart A. Sim

Abstract: The spectral features observed in kilonovae (KNe) reveal the elemental composition and the velocity structures of matter ejected from neutron star mergers. In the spectra of the kilonova AT2017gfo, a P Cygni line at about 1$μ$m has been linked to Sr II, providing the first direct evidence of freshly synthesised $r$-process material. An alternative explanation to Sr II was proposed - He I… ▽ More The spectral features observed in kilonovae (KNe) reveal the elemental composition and the velocity structures of matter ejected from neutron star mergers. In the spectra of the kilonova AT2017gfo, a P Cygni line at about 1$μ$m has been linked to Sr II, providing the first direct evidence of freshly synthesised $r$-process material. An alternative explanation to Sr II was proposed - He I $λ1083.3$nm under certain non-local-thermodynamic-equilibrium (NLTE) conditions. A key way to robustly discriminate between these identifications, and indeed other proposed identifications, is to analyse the temporal emergence and evolution of the feature. In this analysis we trace the earliest appearance of the observed feature and detail its spectro-temporal evolution, which we compare with a collisional-radiative model of helium. We show that the 1$μ$m P Cygni line is inconsistent with a He I interpretation both in emergence time and in subsequent spectral evolution. Self-consistent helium masses cannot reproduce the observed feature, due to the diminishing strength of radiative pathways leaving triplet helium. △ Less

Submitted 20 February, 2026; v1 submitted 17 July, 2024; originally announced July 2024.

Comments: 10 pages, 6 figures. A&A, 692

Journal ref: A&A 692, A134 (2024)

SN 2023zaw: the low-energy explosion of an ultra-stripped star

Authors: T. Moore, J. H. Gillanders, M. Nicholl, M. E. Huber, S. J. Smartt, S. Srivastav, H. F. Stevance, T. -W. Chen, K. C. Chambers, J. P. Anderson, M. D. Fulton, S. R. Oates, C. Angus, G. Pignata, N. Erasmus, H. Gao, J. Herman, C. -C. Lin, T. Lowe, E. A. Magnier, P. Minguez, C. -C. Ngeow, X. Sheng, S. A. Sim, K. W. Smith , et al. (4 additional authors not shown)

Abstract: Most stripped-envelope supernova progenitors are thought to be formed through binary interaction, losing hydrogen and/or helium from their outer layers. Ultra-stripped supernovae are an emerging class of transient which are expected to be produced through envelope-stripping by a NS companion. However, relatively few examples are known and the outcomes of such systems can be diverse and are poorly… ▽ More Most stripped-envelope supernova progenitors are thought to be formed through binary interaction, losing hydrogen and/or helium from their outer layers. Ultra-stripped supernovae are an emerging class of transient which are expected to be produced through envelope-stripping by a NS companion. However, relatively few examples are known and the outcomes of such systems can be diverse and are poorly understood at present. Here, we present spectroscopic observations and high-cadence, multi-band photometry of SN 2023zaw, a rapidly evolving supernova with a low ejecta mass discovered in a nearby spiral galaxy at D = 39.7 Mpc. It has significant Milky Way extinction, $E(B-V)_{\rm MW} = 0.21$, and significant (but uncertain) host extinction. Bayesian evidence comparison reveals that nickel is not the only power source and an additional energy source is required to explain our observations. Our models suggest an ejecta mass of $M_{\rm ej} \sim 0.07$ $\rm M_{\odot}$ and a synthesized nickel mass of $M_{\rm Ni} \sim 0.007$ $\rm M_{\odot}$ are required to explain the observations. We find that additional heating from a central engine, or interaction with circumstellar material can power the early light curve. △ Less

Submitted 22 January, 2025; v1 submitted 22 May, 2024; originally announced May 2024.

Comments: Accepted for publication in ApJL

Including a Luminous Central Remnant in Radiative Transfer Simulations for Type Iax Supernovae

Authors: F. P. Callan, S. A. Sim, C. E. Collins, L. J. Shingles, F. Lach, F. K. Roepke, R. Pakmor, M. Kromer, S. Srivastav

Abstract: Type Iax supernovae (SNe Iax) are proposed to arise from deflagrations of Chandrasekhar mass white dwarfs (WDs). Previous deflagration simulations have achieved good agreement with the light curves and spectra of intermediate-luminosity and bright SNe Iax. However, the model light curves decline too quickly after peak, particularly in red optical and near-infrared (NIR) bands. Deflagration models… ▽ More Type Iax supernovae (SNe Iax) are proposed to arise from deflagrations of Chandrasekhar mass white dwarfs (WDs). Previous deflagration simulations have achieved good agreement with the light curves and spectra of intermediate-luminosity and bright SNe Iax. However, the model light curves decline too quickly after peak, particularly in red optical and near-infrared (NIR) bands. Deflagration models with a variety of ignition configurations do not fully unbind the WD, leaving a remnant polluted with $^{56}\mathrm{Ni}$. Emission from such a remnant may contribute to the luminosity of SNe Iax. Here we investigate the impact of adding a central energy source, assuming instantaneous powering by $^{56}\mathrm{Ni}$ decay in the remnant, in radiative transfer calculations of deflagration models. Including the remnant contribution improves agreement with the light curves of SNe Iax, particularly due to the slower post-maximum decline of the models. Spectroscopic agreement is also improved, with intermediate-luminosity and faint models showing greatest improvement. We adopt the full remnant $^{56}\mathrm{Ni}$ mass predicted for bright models, but good agreement with intermediate-luminosity and faint SNe Iax is only possible for remnant $^{56}\mathrm{Ni}$ masses significantly lower than those predicted. This may indicate that some of the $^{56}\mathrm{Ni}$ decay energy in the remnant does not contribute to the radiative luminosity but instead drives mass ejection, or that escape of energy from the remnant is significantly delayed. Future work should investigate the structure of remnants predicted by deflagration models and the potential roles of winds and delayed energy escape, as well as extend radiative transfer simulations to late times. △ Less

Submitted 19 April, 2024; v1 submitted 22 March, 2024; originally announced March 2024.

Comments: 17 pages, 6 figures. Lightcurves and spectra available at https://hesma.h-its.org

Journal ref: Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Volume 530, Issue 2, May 2024, Pages 1457 to 1473

Type Ia supernova explosion models are inherently multidimensional

Authors: R. Pakmor, I. R. Seitenzahl, A. J. Ruiter, S. A. Sim, F. K. Roepke, S. Taubenberger, R. Bieri, S. Blondin

Abstract: Theoretical and observational approaches to settling the important questions surrounding the progenitor systems and the explosion mechanism of normal Type Ia supernovae have thus far failed. With its unique capability to obtain continuous spectra through the near- and mid-infrared, JWST now offers completely new insights into Type Ia supernovae. In particular, observing them in the nebular phase a… ▽ More Theoretical and observational approaches to settling the important questions surrounding the progenitor systems and the explosion mechanism of normal Type Ia supernovae have thus far failed. With its unique capability to obtain continuous spectra through the near- and mid-infrared, JWST now offers completely new insights into Type Ia supernovae. In particular, observing them in the nebular phase allows us to directly see the central ejecta and thereby constrain the explosion mechanism. We aim to understand and quantify differences in the structure and composition of the central ejecta of various Type Ia supernova explosion models. We examined the currently most popular explosion scenarios using self-consistent multidimensional explosion simulations of delayed-detonation and pulsationally assisted, gravitationally confined delayed detonation Chandrasekhar-mass models and double-detonation sub-Chandrasekhar-mass and violent merger models. We find that the distribution of radioactive and stable nickel in the final ejecta, both observable in nebular spectra, are significantly different between different explosion scenarios. Therefore, comparing synthetic nebular spectra with JWST observations should allow us to distinguish between explosion models. We show that the explosion ejecta are inherently multidimensional for all models, and the Chandrasekhar-mass explosions simulated in spherical symmetry in particular lead to a fundamentally unphysical ejecta structure. Moreover, we show that radioactive and stable nickel cover a significant range of densities at a fixed velocity of the homologously expanding ejecta. Any radiation transfer postprocessing has to take these variations into account to obtain faithful synthetic observables; this will likely require multidimensional radiation transport simulations. △ Less

Submitted 26 April, 2024; v1 submitted 16 February, 2024; originally announced February 2024.

Comments: 7 pages, 2 figures, accepted by A&A, comments welcome

Journal ref: A&A 686, A227 (2024)

State-of-the-art simulations of line-driven accretion disc winds: realistic radiation-hydrodynamics leads to weaker outflows

Authors: Nick Higginbottom, Nicolas Scepi, Christian Knigge, Knox S. Long, James H. Matthews, Stuart A. Sim

Abstract: Disc winds are a common feature in accreting astrophysical systems on all scales. In active galactic nuclei (AGN) and accreting white dwarfs (AWDs), specifically, radiation pressure mediated by spectral lines is a promising mechanism for driving these outflows. Previous hydrodynamical simulations have largely supported this idea, but relied on highly approximate treatments of ionization and radiat… ▽ More Disc winds are a common feature in accreting astrophysical systems on all scales. In active galactic nuclei (AGN) and accreting white dwarfs (AWDs), specifically, radiation pressure mediated by spectral lines is a promising mechanism for driving these outflows. Previous hydrodynamical simulations have largely supported this idea, but relied on highly approximate treatments of ionization and radiative transfer. Given the sensitivity of line driving to the ionization state and radiation field in the outflow, here we present a new method for carrying out 2.5D radiation-hydrodynamic simulations that takes full account of the frequency-dependent radiative transfer through the wind, the corresponding ionization state and the resulting radiative accelerations. Applying our method to AWDs, we find that it is much harder to drive a powerful line-driven outflow when the interaction between matter and radiation is treated self-consistently. This conclusion is robust to changes in the adopted system parameters. The fundamental difficulty is that discs luminous enough to drive such a wind are also hot enough to over-ionize it. As a result, the mass-loss rates in our simulations are much lower than those found in earlier, more approximate calculations. We also show that the ultraviolet spectra produced by our simulations do not match those observed in AWDs. We conclude that, unless the over-ionization problem can be mitigated (e.g. by sub-grid clumping or a softer-than-expected radiation field), line driving may not be a promising mechanism for powering the outflows from AWDs. These conclusions are likely to have significant implications for disc winds in AGN also. △ Less

Submitted 10 December, 2023; originally announced December 2023.

Comments: Accepted for publication in MNRAS. 14 pages, 10 figures + 3 figures in Appendix

Towards inferring the geometry of kilonovae

Authors: Christine E. Collins, Luke J. Shingles, Andreas Bauswein, Stuart A. Sim, Theodoros Soultanis, Vimal Vijayan, Andreas Floers, Oliver Just, Gerrit Leck, Georgios Lioutas, Gabriel Martínez-Pinedo, Albert Sneppen, Darach Watson, Zewei Xiong

Abstract: Recent analysis of the kilonova, AT2017gfo, has indicated that this event was highly spherical. This may challenge hydrodynamics simulations of binary neutron star mergers, which usually predict a range of asymmetries, and radiative transfer simulations show a strong direction dependence. Here we investigate whether the synthetic spectra from a 3D kilonova simulation of asymmetric ejecta from a hy… ▽ More Recent analysis of the kilonova, AT2017gfo, has indicated that this event was highly spherical. This may challenge hydrodynamics simulations of binary neutron star mergers, which usually predict a range of asymmetries, and radiative transfer simulations show a strong direction dependence. Here we investigate whether the synthetic spectra from a 3D kilonova simulation of asymmetric ejecta from a hydrodynamical merger simulation can be compatible with the observational constraints suggesting a high degree of sphericity in AT2017gfo. Specifically, we determine whether fitting a simple P-Cygni line profile model leads to a value for the photospheric velocity that is consistent with the value obtained from the expanding photosphere method. We would infer that our kilonova simulation is highly spherical at early times, when the spectra resemble a blackbody distribution. The two independently inferred photospheric velocities can be very similar, implying a high degree of sphericity, which can be as spherical as inferred for AT2017gfo, demonstrating that the photosphere can appear spherical even for asymmetrical ejecta. The last-interaction velocities of radiation escaping the simulation show a high degree of sphericity, supporting the inferred symmetry of the photosphere. We find that when the synthetic spectra resemble a blackbody the expanding photosphere method can be used to obtain an accurate luminosity distance (within 4-7 per cent). △ Less

Submitted 23 February, 2024; v1 submitted 11 September, 2023; originally announced September 2023.

Comments: Accepted by MNRAS

Unprecedented early flux excess in the hybrid 02es-like type Ia supernova 2022ywc indicates interaction with circumstellar material

Authors: Shubham Srivastav, T. Moore, M. Nicholl, M. R. Magee, S. J. Smartt, M. D. Fulton, S. A. Sim, J. M. Pollin, L. Galbany, C. Inserra, A. Kozyreva, Takashi J. Moriya, F. P. Callan, X. Sheng, K. W. Smith, J. S. Sommer, J. P. Anderson, M. Deckers, M. Gromadzki, T. E. Müller-Bravo, G. Pignata, A. Rest, D. R. Young

Abstract: We present optical photometric and spectroscopic observations of the 02es-like type Ia supernova (SN) 2022ywc. The transient occurred in the outskirts of an elliptical host galaxy and showed a striking double-peaked light curve with an early excess feature detected in the ATLAS orange and cyan bands. The early excess is remarkably luminous with an absolute magnitude $\sim -19$, comparable in lumin… ▽ More We present optical photometric and spectroscopic observations of the 02es-like type Ia supernova (SN) 2022ywc. The transient occurred in the outskirts of an elliptical host galaxy and showed a striking double-peaked light curve with an early excess feature detected in the ATLAS orange and cyan bands. The early excess is remarkably luminous with an absolute magnitude $\sim -19$, comparable in luminosity to the subsequent radioactively-driven second peak. The spectra resemble the hybrid 02es-like SN 2016jhr, that is considered to be a helium shell detonation candidate. We investigate different physical mechanisms that could power such a prominent early excess and rule out massive helium shell detonation, surface $^{56}$Ni distribution and ejecta-companion interaction. We conclude that SN ejecta interacting with circumstellar material (CSM) is the most viable scenario. Semi-analytical modelling with MOSFiT indicates that SN ejecta interacting with $\sim 0.05\,$M$_{\odot}$ of CSM at a distance of $\sim 10^{14}$ cm can explain the extraordinary light curve. A double-degenerate scenario may explain the origin of the CSM, either by tidally-stripped material from the secondary white dwarf, or disk-originated matter launched along polar axes following the disruption and accretion of the secondary white dwarf. A non-spherical CSM configuration could suggest that a small fraction of 02es-like events viewed along a favourable line of sight may be expected to display a very conspicuous early excess like SN 2022ywc. △ Less

Submitted 25 September, 2023; v1 submitted 11 August, 2023; originally announced August 2023.

Comments: Accepted to ApJL after minor revision

Helium as a signature of the double detonation in Type Ia supernovae

Authors: Christine E. Collins, Stuart A. Sim, Luke. J. Shingles, Sabrina Gronow, Friedrich K. Roepke, Ruediger Pakmor, Ivo R. Seitenzahl, Markus Kromer

Abstract: The double detonation is a widely discussed mechanism to explain Type Ia supernovae from explosions of sub-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarfs. In this scenario, a helium detonation is ignited in a surface helium shell on a carbon/oxygen white dwarf, which leads to a secondary carbon detonation. Explosion simulations predict high abundances of unburnt helium in the ejecta, however, radiative transfer… ▽ More The double detonation is a widely discussed mechanism to explain Type Ia supernovae from explosions of sub-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarfs. In this scenario, a helium detonation is ignited in a surface helium shell on a carbon/oxygen white dwarf, which leads to a secondary carbon detonation. Explosion simulations predict high abundances of unburnt helium in the ejecta, however, radiative transfer simulations have not been able to fully address whether helium spectral features would form. This is because helium can not be sufficiently excited to form spectral features by thermal processes, but can be excited by collisions with non-thermal electrons, which most studies have neglected. We carry out a full non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (non-LTE) radiative transfer simulation for an instance of a double detonation explosion model, and include a non-thermal treatment of fast electrons. We find a clear He I λ 10830 feature which is strongest in the first few days after explosion and becomes weaker with time. Initially this feature is blended with the Mg II λ 10927 feature but over time separates to form a secondary feature to the blue wing of the Mg II λ 10927 feature. We compare our simulation to observations of iPTF13ebh, which showed a similar feature to the blue wing of the Mg II λ 10927 feature, previously identified as C I. Our simulation shows a good match to the evolution of this feature and we identify it as high velocity He I λ 10830. This suggests that He I λ 10830 could be a signature of the double detonation scenario. △ Less

Submitted 17 July, 2023; originally announced July 2023.

Comments: 7 pages, accepted by MNRAS

Self-consistent 3D radiative transfer for kilonovae: directional spectra from merger simulations

Authors: Luke J. Shingles, Christine E. Collins, Vimal Vijayan, Andreas Flörs, Oliver Just, Gerrit Leck, Zewei Xiong, Andreas Bauswein, Gabriel Martínez-Pinedo, Stuart A. Sim

Abstract: We present three-dimensional radiative transfer calculations for the ejecta from a neutron star merger that include line-by-line opacities for tens of millions of bound-bound transitions, composition from an r-process nuclear network, and time-dependent thermalization of decay products from individual $α$ and $β^-$ decay reactions. In contrast to expansion opacities and other wavelength-binned tre… ▽ More We present three-dimensional radiative transfer calculations for the ejecta from a neutron star merger that include line-by-line opacities for tens of millions of bound-bound transitions, composition from an r-process nuclear network, and time-dependent thermalization of decay products from individual $α$ and $β^-$ decay reactions. In contrast to expansion opacities and other wavelength-binned treatments, a line-by-line treatment enables us include fluorescence effects and associate spectral features with the emitting and absorbing lines of individual elements. We find variations in the synthetic observables with both the polar and azimuthal viewing angles. The spectra exhibit blended features with strong interactions by Ce III, Sr II, Y II, and Zr II that vary with time and viewing direction. We demonstrate the importance of wavelength-calibration of atomic data using a model with calibrated Sr, Y, and Zr data, and find major differences in the resulting spectra, including a better agreement with AT2017gfo. The synthetic spectra for near-polar inclination show a feature at around 8000 A, similar to AT2017gfo. However, they evolve on a more rapid timescale, likely due to the low ejecta mass (0.005 M$_\odot$) as we take into account only the early ejecta. The comparatively featureless spectra for equatorial observers gives a tentative prediction that future observations of edge-on kilonovae will appear substantially different from AT2017gfo. We also show that 1D models obtained by spherically averaging the 3D ejecta lead to dramatically different direction-integrated luminosities and spectra compared to full 3D calculations. △ Less

Submitted 18 May, 2026; v1 submitted 30 June, 2023; originally announced June 2023.

Comments: 13 pages, 5 figures. Accepted by ApJL. Plots and text are updated as in published Erratum. Error bars in Figure 1 and several minor plotting issues have been fixed

Journal ref: 2023, ApJL, 954, L41

Modelling the spectra of the kilonova AT2017gfo -- II: Beyond the photospheric epochs

Authors: J. H. Gillanders, S. A. Sim, S. J. Smartt, S. Goriely, A. Bauswein

Abstract: Binary neutron star mergers are the first confirmed site of element nucleosynthesis by the rapid neutron-capture process (r-process). The kilonova AT2017gfo is the only electromagnetic counterpart of a neutron star merger spectroscopically observed. We analyse the entire spectral sequence of AT2017gfo (from merger to +10.4 days) and identify seven emission-like features. We confirm that the promin… ▽ More Binary neutron star mergers are the first confirmed site of element nucleosynthesis by the rapid neutron-capture process (r-process). The kilonova AT2017gfo is the only electromagnetic counterpart of a neutron star merger spectroscopically observed. We analyse the entire spectral sequence of AT2017gfo (from merger to +10.4 days) and identify seven emission-like features. We confirm that the prominent 1.08 um feature can be explained by the Sr II near-infrared triplet evolving from a P-Cygni profile through to pure emission. We calculate the expected strength of the [Sr II] doublet and show that its absence requires highly clumped ejecta. Near-infrared features at 1.58 and 2.07 um emerge after three days and become more prominent as the spectra evolve. We model these as optically thick P-Cygni profiles and alternatively as pure emission features (with FWHM = 35600 +/- 6600 km/s), and favour the latter interpretation. The profile of the strong 2.07 um emission feature is best reproduced with two lines, centred at 2.059 and 2.135 um. We search for candidate ions for all prominent features in the spectra. Strong, permitted transitions of La III, Ce III, Gd III, Ra II and Ac I are plausible candidates for the emission features. If any of these features are produced by intrinsically weak, forbidden transitions, we highlight candidate ions spanning the three r-process peaks. The second r-process peak elements Te and I have plausible matches to multiple features. We highlight the need for more detailed and quantitative atomic line transition data. △ Less

Submitted 27 November, 2023; v1 submitted 26 June, 2023; originally announced June 2023.

Comments: Updating to the final accepted version in MNRAS. Main text: 20 pages, with 7 figures and 6 tables. Appendices: 9 pages with 3 tables

Photometry and spectroscopy of the Type Icn supernova 2021ckj: The diverse properties of the ejecta and circumstellar matter of Type Icn SNe

Authors: T. Nagao, H. Kuncarayakti, K. Maeda, T. Moore, A. Pastorello, S. Mattila, K. Uno, S. J. Smartt, S. A. Sim, L. Ferrari, L. Tomasella, J. P. Anderson, T. -W. Chen, L. Galbany, H. Gao, M. Gromadzki, C. P. Gutiérrez, C. Inserra, E. Kankare, E. A. Magnier, T. E. Müller-Bravo, A. Reguitti, D. R. Young

Abstract: We present photometric and spectroscopic observations of the Type Icn supernova (SN) 2021ckj. Spectral modeling of SN 2021ckj reveals that its composition is dominated by oxygen, carbon and iron group elements, and the photospheric velocity at peak is ~10000 km/s. From the light curve (LC) modeling applied to SNe 2021ckj, 2019hgp, and 2021csp, we find that the ejecta and CSM properties of Type Icn… ▽ More We present photometric and spectroscopic observations of the Type Icn supernova (SN) 2021ckj. Spectral modeling of SN 2021ckj reveals that its composition is dominated by oxygen, carbon and iron group elements, and the photospheric velocity at peak is ~10000 km/s. From the light curve (LC) modeling applied to SNe 2021ckj, 2019hgp, and 2021csp, we find that the ejecta and CSM properties of Type Icn SNe are diverse. SNe 2021ckj and 2021csp likely have two ejecta components (an aspherical high-energy component and a spherical standard-energy component) with a roughly spherical CSM, while SN 2019hgp can be explained by a spherical ejecta-CSM interaction alone. The ejecta of SNe 2021ckj and 2021csp have larger energy per ejecta mass than the ejecta of SN 2019hgp. The density distribution of the CSM is similar in these three SNe, and is comparable to those of Type Ibn SNe. This may imply that the mass-loss mechanism is common between Type Icn (and also Type Ibn) SNe. The CSM masses of SN 2021ckj and SN 2021csp are higher than that of SN 2019hgp, although all these values are within the diversity seen in Type Ibn SNe. The early spectrum of SN 2021ckj shows narrow emission lines from C II and C III, without a clear absorption component, in contrast with that observed in SN 2021csp. The similarity of the emission components of these lines implies that the emitting regions of SNe 2021ckj and 2021csp have similar ionization states, and thus suggests that they have similar properties of the ejecta and CSM, which is inferred also from the LC modeling. Taking into account the difference in the strength of the absorption features, this heterogeneity may be attributed to viewing angle effects in otherwise common aspherical ejecta. △ Less

Submitted 14 March, 2023; originally announced March 2023.

Comments: 13 pages, 5 figures, accepted for publication in A&A

Journal ref: A&A 673, A27 (2023)

The optical light curve of GRB 221009A: the afterglow and the emerging supernova

Authors: M. D. Fulton, S. J. Smartt, L. Rhodes, M. E. Huber, A. V. Villar, T. Moore, S. Srivastav, A. S. B. Schultz, K. C. Chambers, L. Izzo, J. Hjorth, T. -W. Chen, M. Nicholl, R. J. Foley, A. Rest, K. W. Smith, D. R. Young, S. A. Sim, J. Bright, Y. Zenati, T. de Boer, J. Bulger, J. Fairlamb, H. Gao, C. -C. Lin , et al. (24 additional authors not shown)

Abstract: We present extensive optical photometry of the afterglow of GRB~221009A. Our data cover $0.9 - 59.9$\,days from the time of \textit{Swift} and \textit{Fermi} GRB detections. Photometry in $rizy$-band filters was collected primarily with Pan-STARRS and supplemented by multiple 1- to 4-meter imaging facilities. We analyzed the Swift X-ray data of the afterglow and found a single decline rate power-l… ▽ More We present extensive optical photometry of the afterglow of GRB~221009A. Our data cover $0.9 - 59.9$\,days from the time of \textit{Swift} and \textit{Fermi} GRB detections. Photometry in $rizy$-band filters was collected primarily with Pan-STARRS and supplemented by multiple 1- to 4-meter imaging facilities. We analyzed the Swift X-ray data of the afterglow and found a single decline rate power-law $f(t) \propto t^{-1.556\pm0.002}$ best describes the light curve. In addition to the high foreground Milky Way dust extinction along this line of sight, the data favour additional extinction to consistently model the optical to X-ray flux with optically thin synchrotron emission. We fit the X-ray-derived power-law to the optical light curve and find good agreement with the measured data up to $5-6$\,days. Thereafter we find a flux excess in the $riy$ bands which peaks in the observer frame at $\sim20$\,days. This excess shares similar light curve profiles to the type Ic broad-lined supernovae SN~2016jca and SN~2017iuk once corrected for the GRB redshift of $z=0.151$ and arbitrarily scaled. This may be representative of a supernova emerging from the declining afterglow. We measure rest-frame absolute peak AB magnitudes of $M_g=-19.8\pm0.6$ and $M_r=-19.4\pm0.3$ and $M_z=-20.1\pm0.3$. If this is an SN component, then Bayesian modelling of the excess flux would imply explosion parameters of $M_{\rm ej}=7.1^{+2.4}_{-1.7}$ M$_{\odot}$, $M_{\rm Ni}=1.0^{+0.6}_{-0.4}$ M$_{\odot}$, and $v_{\rm ej}=33,900^{+5,900}_{-5,700} kms^{-1}$, for the ejecta mass, nickel mass and ejecta velocity respectively, inferring an explosion energy of $E_{\rm kin}\simeq 2.6-9.0\times10^{52}$ ergs. △ Less

Submitted 23 March, 2023; v1 submitted 25 January, 2023; originally announced January 2023.

Comments: Submitted to ApJL on 23rd January 2023, for consideration for publication in the special issue on GRB 221009A. Accepted on 2nd March 2023. The results of this paper are under press embargo until 28th March 2023. 15 pages, 7 figures, 1 table

The luminous type Ia supernova 2022ilv and its early excess emission

Authors: Shubham Srivastav, S. J. Smartt, M. E. Huber, G. Dimitriadis, K. C. Chambers, Michael D. Fulton, Thomas Moore, F. P. Callan, James H. Gillanders, K. Maguire, M. Nicholl, Luke J. Shingles, S. A. Sim, K. W. Smith, J. P. Anderson, Thomas de Boer, Ting-Wan Chen, Hua Gao, D. R. Young

Abstract: We present observations and analysis of the host-less and luminous type Ia supernova 2022ilv, illustrating it is part of the 2003fg-like family, often referred to as super-Chandrasekhar (Ia-SC) explosions. The ATLAS light curve shows evidence of a short-lived, pulse-like early excess, similar to that detected in another luminous type Ia supernova (SN 2020hvf). The light curve is broad and the earl… ▽ More We present observations and analysis of the host-less and luminous type Ia supernova 2022ilv, illustrating it is part of the 2003fg-like family, often referred to as super-Chandrasekhar (Ia-SC) explosions. The ATLAS light curve shows evidence of a short-lived, pulse-like early excess, similar to that detected in another luminous type Ia supernova (SN 2020hvf). The light curve is broad and the early spectra are remarkably similar to SN 2009dc. Adopting a redshift of $z=0.026 \pm 0.005$ for SN 2022ilv based on spectral matching, our model light curve requires a large $^{56}$Ni mass in the range $0.7-1.5$ M$_{\odot}$, and a large ejecta mass in the range $1.6-2.3$ M$_{\odot}$. The early excess can be explained by fast-moving SN ejecta interacting with a thin, dense shell of circumstellar material close to the progenitor ($\sim 10^{13}$ cm), a few hours after the explosion. This may be realised in a double-degenerate scenario, wherein a white dwarf merger is preceded by ejection of a small amount ($\sim 10^{-3}-10^{-2}$ M$_{\odot}$) of hydrogen and helium-poor tidally stripped material. A deep pre-explosion Pan-STARRS1 stack indicates no host galaxy to a limiting magnitude of $r \sim 24.5$. This implies a surprisingly faint limit for any host of $M_r \gtrsim -11$, providing further evidence that these types of explosion occur predominantly in low-metallicity environments. △ Less

Submitted 22 January, 2023; v1 submitted 18 November, 2022; originally announced November 2022.

Comments: Accepted to ApJL after minor revision

StaNdaRT: A repository of standardized test models and outputs for supernova radiative transfer

Authors: Stéphane Blondin, Sergei Blinnikov, Fionntan P. Callan, Christine E. Collins, Luc Dessart, Wesley Even, Andreas Flörs, Andrew G. Fullard, D. John Hillier, Anders Jerkstrand, Daniel Kasen, Boaz Katz, Wolfgang Kerzendorf, Alexandra Kozyreva, Jack O'Brien, Ezequiel A. Pássaro, Nathaniel Roth, Ken J. Shen, Luke Shingles, Stuart A. Sim, Jaladh Singhal, Isaac G. Smith, Elena Sorokina, Victor P. Utrobin, Christian Vogl , et al. (4 additional authors not shown)

Abstract: We present the first results of a comprehensive supernova (SN) radiative-transfer (RT) code-comparison initiative (StaNdaRT), where the emission from the same set of standardized test models is simulated by currently-used RT codes. A total of ten codes have been run on a set of four benchmark ejecta models of Type Ia supernovae. We consider two sub-Chandrasekhar-mass ($M_\mathrm{tot} = 1.0$ M… ▽ More We present the first results of a comprehensive supernova (SN) radiative-transfer (RT) code-comparison initiative (StaNdaRT), where the emission from the same set of standardized test models is simulated by currently-used RT codes. A total of ten codes have been run on a set of four benchmark ejecta models of Type Ia supernovae. We consider two sub-Chandrasekhar-mass ($M_\mathrm{tot} = 1.0$ M$_\odot$) toy models with analytic density and composition profiles and two Chandrasekhar-mass delayed-detonation models that are outcomes of hydrodynamical simulations. We adopt spherical symmetry for all four models. The results of the different codes, including the light curves, spectra, and the evolution of several physical properties as a function of radius and time, are provided in electronic form in a standard format via a public repository. We also include the detailed test model profiles and several python scripts for accessing and presenting the input and output files. We also provide the code used to generate the toy models studied here. In this paper, we describe in detail the test models, radiative-transfer codes and output formats and provide access to the repository. We present example results of several key diagnostic features. △ Less

Submitted 15 April, 2023; v1 submitted 23 September, 2022; originally announced September 2022.

Comments: Accepted for publication in A&A. 27 pages, 12 figures (v4: updated to match published version). The ejecta models and output files from the simulations are available at https://github.com/sn-rad-trans/data1

Journal ref: A&A 668, A163 (2022)

3D radiative transfer kilonova modelling for binary neutron star merger simulations

Authors: Christine E. Collins, Andreas Bauswein, Stuart A. Sim, Vimal Vijayan, Gabriel Martínez-Pinedo, Oliver Just, Luke J. Shingles, Markus Kromer

Abstract: The detection of GW170817 and the accompanying electromagnetic counterpart, AT2017gfo, have provided an important set of observational constraints for theoretical models of neutron star mergers, nucleosynthesis, and radiative transfer for kilonovae. We apply the 3D Monte Carlo radiative transfer code ARTIS to produce synthetic light curves of the dynamical ejecta from a neutron star merger, which… ▽ More The detection of GW170817 and the accompanying electromagnetic counterpart, AT2017gfo, have provided an important set of observational constraints for theoretical models of neutron star mergers, nucleosynthesis, and radiative transfer for kilonovae. We apply the 3D Monte Carlo radiative transfer code ARTIS to produce synthetic light curves of the dynamical ejecta from a neutron star merger, which has been modelled with 3D smooth-particle hydrodynamics (SPH) and included neutrino interactions. Nucleosynthesis calculations provide the energy released from radioactive decays of r-process nuclei, and radiation transport is performed using grey opacities given as functions of the electron fraction. We present line-of-sight dependent bolometric light curves, and find the emission along polar lines of sight to be up to a factor of ~2 brighter than along equatorial lines of sight. Instead of a distinct emission peak, our bolometric light curve exhibits a monotonic decline, characterised by a shoulder at the time when the bulk ejecta becomes optically thin. We show approximate band light curves based on radiation temperatures and compare these to the observations of AT2017gfo. We find that the rapidly declining temperatures lead to a blue to red colour evolution similar to that shown by AT2017gfo. We also investigate the impact of an additional, spherically symmetric secular ejecta component, and we find that the early light curve remains nearly unaffected, while after about 1 day the emission is strongly enhanced and dominated by the secular ejecta, leading to the shift of the shoulder from 1-2 to 6-10 days. △ Less

Submitted 23 February, 2023; v1 submitted 12 September, 2022; originally announced September 2022.

Comments: Accepted by MNRAS

Double detonations: variations in Type Ia supernovae due to different core and He shell masses -- II: synthetic observables

Authors: Christine E. Collins, Sabrina Gronow, Stuart A. Sim, Friedrich K. Roepke

Abstract: Double detonations of sub-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarfs are a promising explosion scenario for Type Ia supernovae, whereby a detonation in a surface helium shell triggers a secondary detonation in a carbon-oxygen core. Recent work has shown that low mass helium shell models reproduce observations of normal SNe Ia. We present 3D radiative transfer simulations for a suite of 3D simulations of the… ▽ More Double detonations of sub-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarfs are a promising explosion scenario for Type Ia supernovae, whereby a detonation in a surface helium shell triggers a secondary detonation in a carbon-oxygen core. Recent work has shown that low mass helium shell models reproduce observations of normal SNe Ia. We present 3D radiative transfer simulations for a suite of 3D simulations of the double detonation explosion scenario for a range of shell and core masses. We find light curves broadly able to reproduce the faint end of the width-luminosity relation shown by SNe Ia, however, we find that all of our models show extremely red colours, not observed in normal SNe Ia. This includes our lowest mass helium shell model. We find clear Ti II absorption features in the model spectra, which would lead to classification as peculiar SNe Ia, as well as line blanketing in some lines of sight by singly ionised Cr and Fe-peak elements. Our radiative transfer simulations show that these explosion models remain promising to explain peculiar SNe Ia. Future full non-LTE simulations may improve the agreement of these explosion models with observations of normal SNe Ia. △ Less

Submitted 5 July, 2023; v1 submitted 9 September, 2022; originally announced September 2022.

Comments: Spectra available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7997388

A New Emulated Monte Carlo Radiative Transfer Disk-Wind Model: X-Ray Accretion Disk-wind Emulator -- XRADE

Authors: G. A. Matzeu, M. Lieu, M. T. Costa, J. N. Reeves, V. Braito, M. Dadina, E. Nardini, P. G. Boorman, M. L. Parker, S. A. Sim, D. Barret, E. Kammoun, R. Middei, M. Giustini, M. Brusa, J. Pérez Cabrera, S. Marchesi

Abstract: We present a new X-Ray Accretion Disk-wind Emulator (\textsc{xrade}) based on the 2.5D Monte Carlo radiative transfer code which provides a physically-motivated, self-consistent treatment of both absorption and emission from a disk-wind by computing the local ionization state and velocity field within the flow. \textsc{xrade} is then implemented through a process that combines X-ray tracing with s… ▽ More We present a new X-Ray Accretion Disk-wind Emulator (\textsc{xrade}) based on the 2.5D Monte Carlo radiative transfer code which provides a physically-motivated, self-consistent treatment of both absorption and emission from a disk-wind by computing the local ionization state and velocity field within the flow. \textsc{xrade} is then implemented through a process that combines X-ray tracing with supervised machine learning. We develop a novel emulation method consisting in training, validating, and testing the simulated disk-wind spectra into a purposely built artificial neural network. The trained emulator can generate a single synthetic spectrum for a particular parameter set in a fraction of a second, in contrast to the few hours required by a standard Monte Carlo radiative transfer pipeline. The emulator does not suffer from interpolation issues with multi-dimensional spaces that are typically faced by traditional X-ray fitting packages such as \textsc{xspec}. \textsc{xrade} will be suitable to a wide number of sources across the black-hole mass, ionizing luminosity, and accretion rate scales. As an example, we demonstrate the applicability of \textsc{xrade} to the physical interpretation of the X-ray spectra of the bright quasar PDS 456, which hosts the best-established accretion-disk wind observed to date. We anticipate that our emulation method will be an indispensable tool for the development of high-resolution theoretical models, with the necessary flexibility to be optimized for the next generation micro-calorimeters on board future missions, like \textit{XRISM/resolve} and \textit{Athena/X-IFU}. This tool can also be implemented across a wide variety of X-ray spectral models and beyond. △ Less

Submitted 27 July, 2022; originally announced July 2022.

Comments: 20 pages, 17 figures, MNRAS accepted for publication

Modelling the ionisation state of Type Ia supernovae in the nebular-phase

Authors: Luke J. Shingles, Andreas Flörs, Stuart A. Sim, Christine E. Collins, Friedrich K. Roepke, Ivo R. Seitenzahl, Ken J. Shen

Abstract: The nebular spectra of Type Ia supernovae ($\gtrapprox$ 100 days after explosion) consist mainly of emission lines from singly- and doubly-ionised Fe-group nuclei. However, theoretical models for many scenarios predict that non-thermal ionisation leads to multiply-ionised species whose recombination photons ionise and deplete Fe$^{+}$ , resulting in negligible [Fe II] emission. We investigate a me… ▽ More The nebular spectra of Type Ia supernovae ($\gtrapprox$ 100 days after explosion) consist mainly of emission lines from singly- and doubly-ionised Fe-group nuclei. However, theoretical models for many scenarios predict that non-thermal ionisation leads to multiply-ionised species whose recombination photons ionise and deplete Fe$^{+}$ , resulting in negligible [Fe II] emission. We investigate a method to determine the collisional excitation conditions from [Fe II] line ratios independently from the ionisation state and find that it cannot be applied to highly-ionised models due to the influence of recombination cascades on Fe$^{+}$ level populations. When the ionisation state is artificially lowered, the line ratios (and excitation conditions) are too similar to distinguish between explosion scenarios. We investigate changes to the treatment of non-thermal energy deposition as a way to reconcile over-ionised theoretical models with observations and find that a simple work function approximation provides closer agreement with the data for sub-Mch models than a detailed Spencer-Fano treatment with widely-used cross section data. To quantify the magnitude of additional heating processes that would be required to sufficiently reduce ionisation from fast leptons, we artificially boost the rate of energy loss to free electrons. We find that the equivalent of as much as an eight times increase to the plasma loss rate would be needed to reconcile the sub-Mch model with observed spectra. Future studies could distinguish between reductions in the non-thermal ionisation rates and increased recombination rates, such as by clumping. △ Less

Submitted 30 March, 2022; originally announced March 2022.

Comments: 13 pages. Accepted by MNRAS

On the fate of the secondary white dwarf in double-degenerate double-detonation Type Ia supernovae

Authors: R. Pakmor, F. P. Callan, C. E. Collins, S. E. de Mink, A. Holas, W. E. Kerzendorf, M. Kromer, P. G. Neunteufel, John T. O'Brien, F. K. Roepke, A. J. Ruiter, I. R. Seitenzahl, Luke J. Shingles, S. A. Sim, S. Taubenberger

Abstract: The progenitor systems and explosion mechanism of Type Ia supernovae are still unknown. Currently favoured progenitors include double-degenerate systems consisting of two carbon-oxygen white dwarfs with thin helium shells. In the double-detonation scenario, violent accretion leads to a helium detonation on the more massive primary white dwarf that turns into a carbon detonation in its core and exp… ▽ More The progenitor systems and explosion mechanism of Type Ia supernovae are still unknown. Currently favoured progenitors include double-degenerate systems consisting of two carbon-oxygen white dwarfs with thin helium shells. In the double-detonation scenario, violent accretion leads to a helium detonation on the more massive primary white dwarf that turns into a carbon detonation in its core and explodes it. We investigate the fate of the secondary white dwarf, focusing on changes of the ejecta and observables of the explosion if the secondary explodes as well rather than survives. We simulate a binary system of a $1.05\,\mathrm{M_\odot}$ and a $0.7\,\mathrm{M_\odot}$ carbon-oxygen white dwarf with $0.03\,\mathrm{M_\odot}$ helium shells each. We follow the system self-consistently from inspiral to ignition, through the explosion, to synthetic observables. We confirm that the primary white dwarf explodes self-consistently. The helium detonation around the secondary white dwarf, however, fails to ignite a carbon detonation. We restart the simulation igniting the carbon detonation in the secondary white dwarf by hand and compare the ejecta and observables of both explosions. We find that the outer ejecta at $v~>~15\,000$\,km\,s$^{-1}$ are indistinguishable. Light curves and spectra are very similar until $\sim~40\,\mathrm{d}$ after explosion and the ejecta are much more spherical than violent merger models. The inner ejecta differ significantly slowing down the decline rate of the bolometric light curve after maximum of the model with a secondary explosion by $\sim20$ per cent. We expect future synthetic 3D nebular spectra to confirm or rule out either model. △ Less

Submitted 25 October, 2022; v1 submitted 28 March, 2022; originally announced March 2022.

Comments: 12 pages, 7 figures, accepted to MNRAS, comments welcome