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Geant4: a Game Changer in High Energy Physics and Related Applicative Fields
Authors:
Tullio Basaglia,
Zane W. Bell,
Daniele D'Agostino,
Paul V. Dressendorfer,
Simone Giani,
Maria Grazia Pia,
Paolo Saracco
Abstract:
Geant4 is an object-oriented toolkit for the simulation of the passage of particles through matter. Its development was initially motivated by the requirements of physics experiments at high energy hadron colliders under construction in the last decade of the 20th century. Since its release in 1998, it has been exploited in many different applicative fields, including space science, nuclear physic…
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Geant4 is an object-oriented toolkit for the simulation of the passage of particles through matter. Its development was initially motivated by the requirements of physics experiments at high energy hadron colliders under construction in the last decade of the 20th century. Since its release in 1998, it has been exploited in many different applicative fields, including space science, nuclear physics, medical physics and archaeology. Its valuable support to scientific discovery is demonstrated by more than 16000 citations received in the past 25 years, including notable citations for main discoveries in different fields. This accomplishment shows that well designed software plays a key role in enabling scientific advancement. In this paper we discuss the key principles and the innovative decisions at the basis of Geant4, which made it a game changer in high energy physics and related fields, and outline some considerations regarding future directions.
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Submitted 20 May, 2024;
originally announced May 2024.
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Diamond Detectors for the TOTEM Timing Upgrade
Authors:
TOTEM Collaboration,
G. Antchev,
P. Aspell,
I. Atanassov,
V. Avati,
J. Baechler,
V. Berardi,
M. Berretti,
E. Bossini,
U. Bottigli,
M. Bozzo,
P. Broulím,
A. Buzzo,
F. S. Cafagna,
M. G. Catanesi,
M. Csanád,
T. Csörgő,
M. Deile,
F. De Leonardis,
A. D'Orazio,
M. Doubek,
K. Eggert,
V. Eremin,
F. Ferro,
A. Fiergolski
, et al. (58 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
This paper describes the design and the performance of the timing detector developed by the TOTEM Collaboration for the Roman Pots (RPs) to measure the Time-Of-Flight (TOF) of the protons produced in central diffractive interactions at the LHC. The measurement of the TOF of the protons allows the determination of the longitudinal position of the proton interaction vertex and its association with o…
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This paper describes the design and the performance of the timing detector developed by the TOTEM Collaboration for the Roman Pots (RPs) to measure the Time-Of-Flight (TOF) of the protons produced in central diffractive interactions at the LHC. The measurement of the TOF of the protons allows the determination of the longitudinal position of the proton interaction vertex and its association with one of the vertices reconstructed by the CMS detectors. The TOF detector is based on single crystal Chemical Vapor Deposition (scCVD) diamond plates and is designed to measure the protons TOF with about 50 ps time precision. This upgrade to the TOTEM apparatus will be used in the LHC run 2 and will tag the central diffractive events up to an interaction pileup of about 1. A dedicated fast and low noise electronics for the signal amplification has been developed. The digitization of the diamond signal is performed by sampling the waveform. After introducing the physics studies that will most profit from the addition of these new detectors, we discuss in detail the optimization and the performance of the first TOF detector installed in the LHC in November 2015.
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Submitted 18 January, 2017;
originally announced January 2017.
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LHC Optics Measurement with Proton Tracks Detected by the Roman Pots of the TOTEM Experiment
Authors:
The TOTEM Collaboration,
G. Antchev,
P. Aspell,
I. Atanassov,
V. Avati,
J. Baechler,
V. Berardi,
M. Berretti,
E. Bossini,
U. Bottigli,
M. Bozzo,
E. Brücken,
A. Buzzo,
F. S. Cafagna,
M. G. Catanesi,
C. Covault,
M. Csanád,
T. Csörgő,
M. Deile,
M. Doubek,
K. Eggert,
V. Eremin,
F. Ferro,
A. Fiergolski,
F. Garcia
, et al. (54 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
Precise knowledge of the beam optics at the LHC is crucial to fulfil the physics goals of the TOTEM experiment, where the kinematics of the scattered protons is reconstructed with the near-beam telescopes -- so-called Roman Pots (RP). Before being detected, the protons' trajectories are influenced by the magnetic fields of the accelerator lattice. Thus precise understanding of the proton transport…
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Precise knowledge of the beam optics at the LHC is crucial to fulfil the physics goals of the TOTEM experiment, where the kinematics of the scattered protons is reconstructed with the near-beam telescopes -- so-called Roman Pots (RP). Before being detected, the protons' trajectories are influenced by the magnetic fields of the accelerator lattice. Thus precise understanding of the proton transport is of key importance for the experiment. A novel method of optics evaluation is proposed which exploits kinematical distributions of elastically scattered protons observed in the RPs. Theoretical predictions, as well as Monte Carlo studies, show that the residual uncertainty of this optics estimation method is smaller than 0.25 percent.
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Submitted 2 June, 2014;
originally announced June 2014.
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Performance of the TOTEM Detectors at the LHC
Authors:
TOTEM Collaboration,
G. Antchev,
P. Aspell,
I. Atanassov,
V. Avati,
J. Baechler,
M. G. Bagliesi,
V. Berardi,
M. Berretti,
E. Bossini,
U. Bottigli,
M. Bozzo,
E. Brücken,
A. Buzzo,
F. S. Cafagna,
M. G. Catanesi,
R. Cecchi,
C. Covault,
M. Csanád,
T. Csörgő,
M. Deile,
M. Doubek,
K. Eggert,
V. Eremin,
F. Ferro
, et al. (57 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The TOTEM Experiment is designed to measure the total proton-proton cross-section with the luminosity-independent method and to study elastic and diffractive pp scattering at the LHC. To achieve optimum forward coverage for charged particles emitted by the pp collisions in the interaction point IP5, two tracking telescopes, T1 and T2, are installed on each side of the IP in the pseudorapidity regi…
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The TOTEM Experiment is designed to measure the total proton-proton cross-section with the luminosity-independent method and to study elastic and diffractive pp scattering at the LHC. To achieve optimum forward coverage for charged particles emitted by the pp collisions in the interaction point IP5, two tracking telescopes, T1 and T2, are installed on each side of the IP in the pseudorapidity region 3.1 < = |eta | < = 6.5, and special movable beam-pipe insertions - called Roman Pots (RP) - are placed at distances of +- 147 m and +- 220 m from IP5. This article describes in detail the working of the TOTEM detector to produce physics results in the first three years of operation and data taking at the LHC.
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Submitted 10 October, 2013;
originally announced October 2013.
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An expression for the Mott cross section of electrons and positrons on nuclei with Z up t0 118
Authors:
M J Boschini,
C Consoland,
M Gervasi,
S Giani,
D Grandi,
V Ivanchenko,
P Nieminem,
S Pensotti,
P G Rancoita,
M Tacconi
Abstract:
In the present work, an improved numerical solution for determining the ratio,$\mathcal{R}^{\rm Mott}$, of the unscreened Mott differential cross section (MDCS) with respect to Rutherford's formula is proposed for the scattering of electrons and positrons on nuclei with $1\leq Z \leq 118$. It accounts for incoming lepton energies between 1\,keV and 900\,MeV. For both electrons and positrons, a fit…
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In the present work, an improved numerical solution for determining the ratio,$\mathcal{R}^{\rm Mott}$, of the unscreened Mott differential cross section (MDCS) with respect to Rutherford's formula is proposed for the scattering of electrons and positrons on nuclei with $1\leq Z \leq 118$. It accounts for incoming lepton energies between 1\,keV and 900\,MeV. For both electrons and positrons, a fitting formula and a set of fitting coefficients for the ratio $\mathcal{R}^{\rm Mott}$ on nuclei are also presented. The found average error of the latter practical interpolated expression is typically lower than 1% also at low energy for electrons and lower than 0.05% for positrons for all nuclei over the entire energy range.
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Submitted 22 April, 2013;
originally announced April 2013.
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Boundary element dynamical energy analysis: a versatile method for solving two or three dimensional wave problems in the high frequency limit
Authors:
David J. Chappell,
Gregor Tanner,
Stefano Giani
Abstract:
Dynamical energy analysis was recently introduced as a new method for determining the distribution of mechanical and acoustic wave energy in complex built up structures. The technique interpolates between standard statistical energy analysis and full ray tracing, containing both of these methods as limiting cases. As such the applicability of the method is wide ranging and additionally includes th…
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Dynamical energy analysis was recently introduced as a new method for determining the distribution of mechanical and acoustic wave energy in complex built up structures. The technique interpolates between standard statistical energy analysis and full ray tracing, containing both of these methods as limiting cases. As such the applicability of the method is wide ranging and additionally includes the numerical modelling of problems in optics and more generally of linear wave problems in electromagnetics. In this work we consider a new approach to the method with enhanced versatility, enabling three-dimensional problems to be handled in a straightforward manner. The main challenge is the high dimensionality of the problem: we determine the wave energy density both as a function of the spatial coordinate and momentum (or direction) space. The momentum variables are expressed in separable (polar) coordinates facilitating the use of products of univariate basis expansions. However this is not the case for the spatial argument and so we propose to make use of automated mesh generating routines to both localise the approximation, allowing quadrature costs to be kept moderate, and give versatility in the code for different geometric configurations.
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Submitted 20 February, 2012;
originally announced February 2012.
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Nuclear and Non-Ionizing Energy-loss of Electrons with Low and Relativistic Energies in Materials and Space Environment
Authors:
M. J. Boschini,
C. Consolandi,
M. Gervasi,
S. Giani,
D. Grandi,
V. Ivanchenko,
P. Nieminem,
S. Pensotti,
P. G. Rancoita,
M. Tacconi
Abstract:
The treatment of the electron-nucleus interaction based on the Mott differential cross section was extended to account for effects due to screened Coulomb potentials, finite sizes and finite rest masses of nuclei for electrons above 200 keV and up to ultra high energies. This treatment allows one to determine both the total and differential cross sections, thus, subsequently to calculate the resul…
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The treatment of the electron-nucleus interaction based on the Mott differential cross section was extended to account for effects due to screened Coulomb potentials, finite sizes and finite rest masses of nuclei for electrons above 200 keV and up to ultra high energies. This treatment allows one to determine both the total and differential cross sections, thus, subsequently to calculate the resulting nuclear and non-ionizing stopping powers. Above a few hundreds of MeV, neglecting the effect due to finite rest masses of recoil nuclei the stopping power and NIEL result to be largely underestimated; while, above a few tens of MeV the finite size of the nuclear target prevents a further large increase of stopping powers which approach almost constant values.
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Submitted 6 December, 2011; v1 submitted 17 November, 2011;
originally announced November 2011.
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Nuclear and Non-Ionizing Energy-Loss for Coulomb Scattered Particles from Low Energy up to Relativistic Regime in Space Radiation Environment
Authors:
M. J. Boschini,
C. Consolandi,
M. Gervasi,
S. Giani,
D. Grandi,
V. Ivanchenko,
S. Pensotti,
P. G. Rancoita,
M. Tacconi
Abstract:
In the space environment, instruments onboard of spacecrafts can be affected by displacement damage due to radiation. The differential scattering cross section for screened nucleus--nucleus interactions - i.e., including the effects due to screened Coulomb nuclear fields -, nuclear stopping powers and non-ionization energy losses are treated from about 50 keV/nucleon up to relativistic energies.
In the space environment, instruments onboard of spacecrafts can be affected by displacement damage due to radiation. The differential scattering cross section for screened nucleus--nucleus interactions - i.e., including the effects due to screened Coulomb nuclear fields -, nuclear stopping powers and non-ionization energy losses are treated from about 50 keV/nucleon up to relativistic energies.
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Submitted 21 January, 2014; v1 submitted 22 November, 2010;
originally announced November 2010.
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Dynamical energy analysis for built-up acoustic systems at high frequencies
Authors:
D. J. Chappell,
S. Giani,
G. Tanner
Abstract:
Standard methods for describing the intensity distribution of mechanical and acoustic wave fields in the high frequency asymptotic limit are often based on flow transport equations. Common techniques are statistical energy analysis, employed mostly in the context of vibro-acoustics, and ray tracing, a popular tool in architectural acoustics. Dynamical energy analysis makes it possible to interpola…
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Standard methods for describing the intensity distribution of mechanical and acoustic wave fields in the high frequency asymptotic limit are often based on flow transport equations. Common techniques are statistical energy analysis, employed mostly in the context of vibro-acoustics, and ray tracing, a popular tool in architectural acoustics. Dynamical energy analysis makes it possible to interpolate between standard statistical energy analysis and full ray tracing, containing both of these methods as limiting cases. In this work a version of dynamical energy analysis based on a Chebyshev basis expansion of the Perron-Frobenius operator governing the ray dynamics is introduced. It is shown that the technique can efficiently deal with multi-component systems overcoming typical geometrical limitations present in statistical energy analysis. Results are compared with state-of-the-art hp-adaptive discontinuous Galerkin finite element simulations.
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Submitted 2 August, 2011; v1 submitted 20 September, 2010;
originally announced September 2010.
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Dynamic Distortions in the HARP TPC: observations, measurements, modelling and corrections
Authors:
A. Bagulya,
A. Blondel,
S. Borghi,
G. Catanesi,
P. Chimenti,
U. Gastaldi,
S. Giani,
V. Grichine,
V. Ivanchenko,
D. Kolev,
J. Panman,
E. Radicioni,
R. Tsenov,
I. Tsukerman
Abstract:
The HARP experiment was designed to study hadron production in proton- nucleus collisions in the energy range of 1.5 GeV/c-15 GeV/c. The experiment was made of two spectrometers, a forward dipole spectrometer and a large-angle solenoid spectrometer. In the large-angle spectrometer the main tracking and particle identification is performed by a cylindrical Time Projection Chamber (TPC) which suff…
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The HARP experiment was designed to study hadron production in proton- nucleus collisions in the energy range of 1.5 GeV/c-15 GeV/c. The experiment was made of two spectrometers, a forward dipole spectrometer and a large-angle solenoid spectrometer. In the large-angle spectrometer the main tracking and particle identification is performed by a cylindrical Time Projection Chamber (TPC) which suffered a number of shortcomings later addressed in the analysis. In this paper we discuss the effects of time-dependent (dynamic) distortions of the position measurements in the TPC which are due to a build-up of ion charges in the chamber during the accelerator spill. These phenomena have been studied both theoretically and experimentally, and a correction procedure has been developed. First, the dynamics of the positive ion cloud and of the full electrostatics of the field-cage system have been modelled with a phenomenological approach and a general correction procedure has been developed and applied to all data settings. Then, the correction procedure has been benchmarked experimentally by means of recoil protons in elastic scattering reactions, where the track coordinates are precisely predictable from simple kinematical considerations. After application of the corrections for dynamic distortions the corrected data have a performance equal to data where the dynamic distortions are absent. We describe the theoretical model, the comparison with the measurements, the distortion correction method and the results obtained with experimental data.
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Submitted 27 March, 2009;
originally announced March 2009.
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The Time Response of Glass Resistive Plate Chambers to Heavily Ionizing Particles
Authors:
A. Artamonov,
A. Blondel,
M. Bogomilov,
C. Booth,
S. Borghi,
M. G. Catanesi,
A. Cervera--Villanueva,
P. Chimenti,
U. Gastaldi,
S. Giani,
J. J. Gómez--Cadenas,
J. S. Graulich,
G. Grégoire,
A. Grossheim,
A. Guglielmi,
V. Ivanchenko,
D. Kolev,
C. Meurer,
M. Mezzetto,
J. Panman,
B. Popov,
E. Radicioni,
R. Schroeter,
P. Temnikov,
E. Tcherniaev
, et al. (3 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The HARP system of resistive plate chambers (RPCs) was designed to perform particle identification by the measurement of the difference in the time-of-flight of different particles. In previous papers an apparent discrepancy was shown between the response of the RPCs to minimum ionizing pions and heavily ionizing protons. Using the kinematics of elastic scattering off a hydrogen target a control…
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The HARP system of resistive plate chambers (RPCs) was designed to perform particle identification by the measurement of the difference in the time-of-flight of different particles. In previous papers an apparent discrepancy was shown between the response of the RPCs to minimum ionizing pions and heavily ionizing protons. Using the kinematics of elastic scattering off a hydrogen target a controlled beam of low momentum recoil protons was directed onto the chambers. With this method the trajectory and momentum, and hence the time-of-flight of the protons can be precisely predicted without need for a measurement of momentum of the protons. It is demonstrated that the measurement of the time-of-arrival of particles by the thin gas-gap glass RPC system of the HARP experiment depends on the primary ionization deposited by the particle in the detector.
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Submitted 28 September, 2007; v1 submitted 24 September, 2007;
originally announced September 2007.