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The Super Fine-Grained Detector for the T2K neutrino oscillation experiment
Authors:
S. Abe,
H. Alarakia-Charles,
I. Alekseev,
T. Arai,
T. Arihara,
S. Arimoto,
A. M. Artikov,
Y. Awataguchi,
N. Babu,
V. Baranov,
G. Barr,
D. Barrow,
L. Bartoszek,
A. Beliakova,
L. Bernardi,
L. Berns,
S. Bhattacharjee,
A. V. Boikov,
A. Blondel,
A. Bonnemaison,
F. Cadoux,
S. Cap,
A. Cauchois,
J. Chakrani,
P. S. Chong
, et al. (147 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The magnetised near detector ND280 of the long-baseline neutrino experiment T2K has been upgraded to improve its detection performance and, consequently, enhance our understanding of neutrino-nucleus interactions, reducing the systematic uncertainties in measurements of the neutrino oscillation parameters. A key component of the upgrade is a novel segmented plastic scintillator detector, called th…
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The magnetised near detector ND280 of the long-baseline neutrino experiment T2K has been upgraded to improve its detection performance and, consequently, enhance our understanding of neutrino-nucleus interactions, reducing the systematic uncertainties in measurements of the neutrino oscillation parameters. A key component of the upgrade is a novel segmented plastic scintillator detector, called the Super Fine-Grained Detector (SuperFGD), made of approximately 2 million optically isolated 1 cm$^3$ cubes read out by three orthogonal wavelength-shifting (WLS) fibres. Scintillation photons are detected by 55,888 Hamamatsu Multi-Pixel Photon Counters (MPPCs). The SuperFGD provides 3D images of neutrino interactions by tracking the final-state charged particles produced isotropically, including protons down to a threshold of around 330 MeV/$c$. The high light yield of SuperFGD greatly improves particle identification and the sub-nanosecond time resolution provides an excellent identification of Michel electrons. The SuperFGD is also able to detect neutrons from neutrino interactions and, for the first time in a neutrino experiment, to reconstruct their kinetic energy using a fine detector segmentation and by measuring the time-of-flight with sub-nanosecond precision. In this article the details of the detector design, construction and performance are described. The detector was installed in ND280 and successfully commissioned with cosmic data in 2023 and, later, with the T2K neutrino beam. The detector response has been characterised with the 2023 and 2024 data and the results are reported in this article.
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Submitted 16 March, 2026;
originally announced March 2026.
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Introducing a Markov Chain-Based Time Calibration Procedure for Multi-Channel Particle Detectors: Application to the SuperFGD and ToF Detectors of the T2K Experiment
Authors:
S. Abe,
H. Alarakia-Charles,
I. Alekseev,
C. Alt,
T. Arai,
T. Arihara,
S. Arimoto,
A. M. Artikov,
Y. Awataguchi,
N. Babu,
V. Baranov,
G. Barr,
D. Barrow,
L. Bartoszek,
L. Bernardi,
L. Berns,
S. Bhattacharjee,
A. V. Boikov,
A. Blanchet,
A. Blondel,
A. Bonnemaison,
S. Bordoni,
M. H. Bui,
T. H. Bui,
F. Cadoux
, et al. (168 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
Inter-channel mis-synchronisation can be a limiting factor to the time resolution of high performance timing detectors with multiple readout channels and independent electronics units. In these systems, time calibration methods employed must be able to efficiently correct for minimal mis-synchronisation between channels and achieve the best detector performance. We present an iterative time calibr…
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Inter-channel mis-synchronisation can be a limiting factor to the time resolution of high performance timing detectors with multiple readout channels and independent electronics units. In these systems, time calibration methods employed must be able to efficiently correct for minimal mis-synchronisation between channels and achieve the best detector performance. We present an iterative time calibration method based on Markov Chains, suitable for detector systems with multiple readout channels. Starting from correlated hit pairs alone, and without requiring an external reference time measurement, the method solves for fixed per-channel offsets, with precision limited only by the intrinsic single-channel resolution. A mathematical proof that the method is able to find the correct time offsets to be assigned to each detector channel in order to achieve inter-channel synchronisation is given, and it is shown that the number of iterations to reach convergence within the desired precision is controllable with a single parameter. Numerical studies are used to confirm unbiased recovery of true offsets. Finally, the application of the calibration method to the Super Fine-Grained Detector (SuperFGD) and the Time of Flight (TOF) detector at the upgraded T2K near detector (ND280) shows good improvement in overall timing resolution, demonstrating the effectiveness in a real-world scenario and scalability.
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Submitted 19 September, 2025; v1 submitted 11 August, 2025;
originally announced August 2025.
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First measurement of neutron capture multiplicity in neutrino-oxygen neutral-current quasi-elastic-like interactions using an accelerator neutrino beam
Authors:
T2K Collaboration,
K. Abe,
S. Abe,
R. Akutsu,
H. Alarakia-Charles,
Y. I. Alj Hakim,
S. Alonso Monsalve,
L. Anthony,
M. Antonova,
S. Aoki,
K. A. Apte,
T. Arai,
T. Arihara,
S. Arimoto,
Y. Asada,
Y. Ashida,
N. Babu,
G. Barr,
D. Barrow,
P. Bates,
M. Batkiewicz-Kwasniak,
V. Berardi,
L. Berns,
S. Bordoni,
S. B. Boyd
, et al. (314 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
We report the first measurement of neutron capture multiplicity in neutrino-oxygen neutral-current quasi-elastic-like interactions at the gadolinium-loaded Super-Kamiokande detector using the T2K neutrino beam, which has a peak energy of about 0.6 GeV. A total of 30 neutral-current quasi-elastic-like event candidates were selected from T2K data corresponding to an exposure of $1.76\times10^{20}$ p…
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We report the first measurement of neutron capture multiplicity in neutrino-oxygen neutral-current quasi-elastic-like interactions at the gadolinium-loaded Super-Kamiokande detector using the T2K neutrino beam, which has a peak energy of about 0.6 GeV. A total of 30 neutral-current quasi-elastic-like event candidates were selected from T2K data corresponding to an exposure of $1.76\times10^{20}$ protons on target. The $γ$ ray signals resulting from neutron captures were identified using a neural network. The flux-averaged mean neutron capture multiplicity was measured to be $1.37\pm0.33\text{ (stat.)}$$^{+0.17}_{-0.27}\text{ (syst.)}$, which is compatible within $2.3\,σ$ than predictions obtained using our nominal simulation. We discuss potential sources of systematic uncertainty in the prediction and demonstrate that a significant portion of this discrepancy arises from the modeling of hadron-nucleus interactions in the detector medium.
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Submitted 30 May, 2025; v1 submitted 28 May, 2025;
originally announced May 2025.
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Machine Learning-Assisted Unfolding for Neutrino Cross-section Measurements with the OmniFold Technique
Authors:
Roger G. Huang,
Andrew Cudd,
Masaki Kawaue,
Tatsuya Kikawa,
Benjamin Nachman,
Vinicius Mikuni,
Callum Wilkinson
Abstract:
The choice of unfolding method for a cross-section measurement is tightly coupled to the model dependence of the efficiency correction and the overall impact of cross-section modeling uncertainties in the analysis. A key issue is the dimensionality used in unfolding, as the kinematics of all outgoing particles in an event typically affect the reconstruction performance in a neutrino detector. Omni…
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The choice of unfolding method for a cross-section measurement is tightly coupled to the model dependence of the efficiency correction and the overall impact of cross-section modeling uncertainties in the analysis. A key issue is the dimensionality used in unfolding, as the kinematics of all outgoing particles in an event typically affect the reconstruction performance in a neutrino detector. OmniFold is an unfolding method that iteratively reweights a simulated dataset, using machine learning to utilize arbitrarily high-dimensional information, that has previously been applied to proton-proton and proton-electron datasets. This paper demonstrates OmniFold's application to a neutrino cross-section measurement for the first time using a public T2K near detector simulated dataset, comparing its performance with traditional approaches using a mock data study.
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Submitted 30 June, 2025; v1 submitted 9 April, 2025;
originally announced April 2025.
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Neutron multiplicity measurement in muon capture on oxygen nuclei in the Gd-loaded Super-Kamiokande detector
Authors:
The Super-Kamiokande Collaboration,
:,
S. Miki,
K. Abe,
S. Abe,
Y. Asaoka,
C. Bronner,
M. Harada,
Y. Hayato,
K. Hiraide,
K. Hosokawa,
K. Ieki,
M. Ikeda,
J. Kameda,
Y. Kanemura,
R. Kaneshima,
Y. Kashiwagi,
Y. Kataoka,
S. Mine,
M. Miura,
S. Moriyama,
M. Nakahata,
S. Nakayama,
Y. Noguchi,
K. Okamoto
, et al. (265 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
In recent neutrino detectors, neutrons produced in neutrino reactions play an important role. Muon capture on oxygen nuclei is one of the processes that produce neutrons in water Cherenkov detectors. We measured neutron multiplicity in the process using cosmic ray muons that stop in the gadolinium-loaded Super-Kamiokande detector. For this measurement, neutron detection efficiency is obtained with…
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In recent neutrino detectors, neutrons produced in neutrino reactions play an important role. Muon capture on oxygen nuclei is one of the processes that produce neutrons in water Cherenkov detectors. We measured neutron multiplicity in the process using cosmic ray muons that stop in the gadolinium-loaded Super-Kamiokande detector. For this measurement, neutron detection efficiency is obtained with the muon capture events followed by gamma rays to be $50.2^{+2.0}_{-2.1}\%$. By fitting the observed multiplicity considering the detection efficiency, we measure neutron multiplicity in muon capture as $P(0)=24\pm3\%$, $P(1)=70^{+3}_{-2}\%$, $P(2)=6.1\pm0.5\%$, $P(3)=0.38\pm0.09\%$. This is the first measurement of the multiplicity of neutrons associated with muon capture on oxygen without neutron energy threshold.
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Submitted 31 January, 2026; v1 submitted 24 February, 2025;
originally announced February 2025.
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Characterization of the optical model of the T2K 3D segmented plastic scintillator detector
Authors:
S. Abe,
I. Alekseev,
T. Arai,
T. Arihara,
S. Arimoto,
N. Babu,
V. Baranov,
L. Bartoszek,
L. Berns,
S. Bhattacharjee,
A. Blondel,
A. V. Boikov,
M. Buizza-Avanzini,
J. Capó,
J. Cayo,
J. Chakrani,
P. S. Chong,
A. Chvirova,
M. Danilov,
C. Davis,
Yu. I. Davydov,
A. Dergacheva,
N. Dokania,
D. Douqa,
T. A. Doyle
, et al. (106 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The magnetised near detector (ND280) of the T2K long-baseline neutrino oscillation experiment has been recently upgraded aiming to satisfy the requirement of reducing the systematic uncertainty from measuring the neutrinonucleus interaction cross section, which is the largest systematic uncertainty in the search for leptonic charge-parity symmetry violation. A key component of the upgrade is Super…
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The magnetised near detector (ND280) of the T2K long-baseline neutrino oscillation experiment has been recently upgraded aiming to satisfy the requirement of reducing the systematic uncertainty from measuring the neutrinonucleus interaction cross section, which is the largest systematic uncertainty in the search for leptonic charge-parity symmetry violation. A key component of the upgrade is SuperFGD, a 3D segmented plastic scintillator detector made of approximately 2,000,000 optically-isolated 1 cm3 cubes. It will provide a 3D image of GeV neutrino interactions by combining tracking and stopping power measurements of final state particles with sub-nanosecond time resolution. The performance of SuperFGD is characterized by the precision of its response to charged particles as well as the systematic effects that might affect the physics measurements. Hence, a detailed Geant4 based optical simulation of the SuperFGD building block, i.e. a plastic scintillating cube read out by three wavelength shifting fibers, has been developed and validated with the different datasets collected in various beam tests. In this manuscript the description of the optical model as well as the comparison with data are reported.
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Submitted 31 October, 2024;
originally announced October 2024.
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Combined Pre-Supernova Alert System with Kamland and Super-Kamiokande
Authors:
KamLAND,
Super-Kamiokande Collaborations,
:,
Seisho Abe,
Minori Eizuka,
Sawako Futagi,
Azusa Gando,
Yoshihito Gando,
Shun Goto,
Takahiko Hachiya,
Kazumi Hata,
Koichi Ichimura,
Sei Ieki,
Haruo Ikeda,
Kunio Inoue,
Koji Ishidoshiro,
Yuto Kamei,
Nanami Kawada,
Yasuhiro Kishimoto,
Masayuki Koga,
Maho Kurasawa,
Tadao Mitsui,
Haruhiko Miyake,
Daisuke Morita,
Takeshi Nakahata
, et al. (290 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
Preceding a core-collapse supernova, various processes produce an increasing amount of neutrinos of all flavors characterized by mounting energies from the interior of massive stars. Among them, the electron antineutrinos are potentially detectable by terrestrial neutrino experiments such as KamLAND and Super-Kamiokande via inverse beta decay interactions. Once these pre-supernova neutrinos are ob…
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Preceding a core-collapse supernova, various processes produce an increasing amount of neutrinos of all flavors characterized by mounting energies from the interior of massive stars. Among them, the electron antineutrinos are potentially detectable by terrestrial neutrino experiments such as KamLAND and Super-Kamiokande via inverse beta decay interactions. Once these pre-supernova neutrinos are observed, an early warning of the upcoming core-collapse supernova can be provided. In light of this, KamLAND and Super-Kamiokande, both located in the Kamioka mine in Japan, have been monitoring pre-supernova neutrinos since 2015 and 2021, respectively. Recently, we performed a joint study between KamLAND and Super-Kamiokande on pre-supernova neutrino detection. A pre-supernova alert system combining the KamLAND detector and the Super-Kamiokande detector was developed and put into operation, which can provide a supernova alert to the astrophysics community. Fully leveraging the complementary properties of these two detectors, the combined alert is expected to resolve a pre-supernova neutrino signal from a 15 M$_{\odot}$ star within 510 pc of the Earth, at a significance level corresponding to a false alarm rate of no more than 1 per century. For a Betelgeuse-like model with optimistic parameters, it can provide early warnings up to 12 hours in advance.
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Submitted 1 July, 2024; v1 submitted 15 April, 2024;
originally announced April 2024.
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Second gadolinium loading to Super-Kamiokande
Authors:
K. Abe,
C. Bronner,
Y. Hayato,
K. Hiraide,
K. Hosokawa,
K. Ieki,
M. Ikeda,
J. Kameda,
Y. Kanemura,
R. Kaneshima,
Y. Kashiwagi,
Y. Kataoka,
S. Miki,
S. Mine,
M. Miura,
S. Moriyama,
Y. Nakano,
M. Nakahata,
S. Nakayama,
Y. Noguchi,
K. Sato,
H. Sekiya,
H. Shiba,
K. Shimizu,
M. Shiozawa
, et al. (225 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The first loading of gadolinium (Gd) into Super-Kamiokande in 2020 was successful, and the neutron capture efficiency on Gd reached 50\%. To further increase the Gd neutron capture efficiency to 75\%, 26.1 tons of $\rm Gd_2(\rm SO_4)_3\cdot \rm 8H_2O$ was additionally loaded into Super-Kamiokande (SK) from May 31 to July 4, 2022. As the amount of loaded $\rm Gd_2(\rm SO_4)_3\cdot \rm 8H_2O$ was do…
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The first loading of gadolinium (Gd) into Super-Kamiokande in 2020 was successful, and the neutron capture efficiency on Gd reached 50\%. To further increase the Gd neutron capture efficiency to 75\%, 26.1 tons of $\rm Gd_2(\rm SO_4)_3\cdot \rm 8H_2O$ was additionally loaded into Super-Kamiokande (SK) from May 31 to July 4, 2022. As the amount of loaded $\rm Gd_2(\rm SO_4)_3\cdot \rm 8H_2O$ was doubled compared to the first loading, the capacity of the powder dissolving system was doubled. We also developed new batches of gadolinium sulfate with even further reduced radioactive impurities. In addition, a more efficient screening method was devised and implemented to evaluate these new batches of $\rm Gd_2(\rm SO_4)_3\cdot \rm 8H_2O$. Following the second loading, the Gd concentration in SK was measured to be $333.5\pm2.5$ ppm via an Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS). From the mean neutron capture time constant of neutrons from an Am/Be calibration source, the Gd concentration was independently measured to be 332.7 $\pm$ 6.8(sys.) $\pm$ 1.1(stat.) ppm, consistent with the AAS result. Furthermore, during the loading the Gd concentration was monitored continually using the capture time constant of each spallation neutron produced by cosmic-ray muons,and the final neutron capture efficiency was shown to become 1.5 times higher than that of the first loaded phase, as expected.
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Submitted 18 June, 2024; v1 submitted 12 March, 2024;
originally announced March 2024.
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Scintillator ageing of the T2K near detectors from 2010 to 2021
Authors:
The T2K Collaboration,
K. Abe,
N. Akhlaq,
R. Akutsu,
A. Ali,
C. Alt,
C. Andreopoulos,
M. Antonova,
S. Aoki,
T. Arihara,
Y. Asada,
Y. Ashida,
E. T. Atkin,
S. Ban,
M. Barbi,
G. J. Barker,
G. Barr,
D. Barrow,
M. Batkiewicz-Kwasniak,
F. Bench,
V. Berardi,
L. Berns,
S. Bhadra,
A. Blanchet,
A. Blondel
, et al. (333 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The T2K experiment widely uses plastic scintillator as a target for neutrino interactions and an active medium for the measurement of charged particles produced in neutrino interactions at its near detector complex. Over 10 years of operation the measured light yield recorded by the scintillator based subsystems has been observed to degrade by 0.9--2.2\% per year. Extrapolation of the degradation…
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The T2K experiment widely uses plastic scintillator as a target for neutrino interactions and an active medium for the measurement of charged particles produced in neutrino interactions at its near detector complex. Over 10 years of operation the measured light yield recorded by the scintillator based subsystems has been observed to degrade by 0.9--2.2\% per year. Extrapolation of the degradation rate through to 2040 indicates the recorded light yield should remain above the lower threshold used by the current reconstruction algorithms for all subsystems. This will allow the near detectors to continue contributing to important physics measurements during the T2K-II and Hyper-Kamiokande eras. Additionally, work to disentangle the degradation of the plastic scintillator and wavelength shifting fibres shows that the reduction in light yield can be attributed to the ageing of the plastic scintillator.
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Submitted 26 July, 2022;
originally announced July 2022.