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Operation and performance of ProtoDUNE Dual Phase liquid argon time projection chamber
Authors:
DUNE Collaboration,
S. Abbaslu,
F. Abd Alrahman,
A. Abed Abud,
R. Acciarri,
L. P. Accorsi,
M. A. Acero,
M. R. Adames,
G. Adamov,
M. Adamowski,
K. Adhikari,
C. Adriano,
K. Agudelo-Jaramillo,
F. Akbar,
F. Alemanno,
N. S. Alex,
L. Aliaga Soplin,
A. Alqaisi,
M. Alrashed,
A. Alton,
R. Alvarez,
T. Alves,
A. Aman,
H. Amar,
R. Amarinei
, et al. (1341 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
ProtoDUNE-DP was the largest ever built Liquid Argon Time Projection Chamber (LArTPC) operating in Dual-Phase (DP) mode, with a liquid target and charge read-out placed in the gas. It had an active volume of $6\times6\times6$\,m$^3$ corresponding to an active mass of 300\,t (total LAr mass of 720\,t), constructed at the CERN Neutrino Platform and took data from 2019 to 2020 with cosmic muons. In P…
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ProtoDUNE-DP was the largest ever built Liquid Argon Time Projection Chamber (LArTPC) operating in Dual-Phase (DP) mode, with a liquid target and charge read-out placed in the gas. It had an active volume of $6\times6\times6$\,m$^3$ corresponding to an active mass of 300\,t (total LAr mass of 720\,t), constructed at the CERN Neutrino Platform and took data from 2019 to 2020 with cosmic muons. In ProtoDUNE-DP the electric drift field is oriented in the vertical direction, causing the electrons to drift vertically towards the anode at the top. The ionization charge is then extracted into the gaseous argon above the liquid surface, amplified by Townsend avalanches, and collected by the charge readout planes. The detector experienced significant technical problems affecting the long-term operation of the Charge Readout Planes, formed by the Large Electron Multipliers, but other critical segments demonstrated required performance including the delivery of -300 kV to the TPC cathode, verification of replaceable charge read-out electronics, and operation of the photon detection system. ProtoDUNE-DP experience resulted in improved designs of the Vertical Drift LArTPC.
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Submitted 21 July, 2026; v1 submitted 17 July, 2026;
originally announced July 2026.
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Charge readout electronics for the DUNE horizontal drift far detector: design and performance in ProtoDUNE-HD
Authors:
DUNE Collaboration,
S. Abbaslu,
F. Abd Alrahman,
A. Abed Abud,
R. Acciarri,
L. P. Accorsi,
M. A. Acero,
M. R. Adames,
G. Adamov,
M. Adamowski,
K. Adhikari,
C. Adriano,
K. Agudelo-Jaramillo,
F. Akbar,
F. Alemanno,
N. S. Alex,
L. Aliaga Soplin,
A. Alqaisi,
M. Alrashed,
A. Alton,
R. Alvarez,
T. Alves,
A. Aman,
H. Amar,
R. Amarinei
, et al. (1346 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
DUNE (Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment) is a long-baseline neutrino oscillation experiment currently under construction, whose far detectors will be the largest liquid argon time projection chambers ever built. This detector design calls for custom-built cryogenic front-end electronics to meet its performance requirements. This paper describes the charge readout electronics that will be used i…
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DUNE (Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment) is a long-baseline neutrino oscillation experiment currently under construction, whose far detectors will be the largest liquid argon time projection chambers ever built. This detector design calls for custom-built cryogenic front-end electronics to meet its performance requirements. This paper describes the charge readout electronics that will be used in the DUNE horizontal drift (HD) far detector and presents performance results using data from the ProtoDUNE-HD detector, a 770 ton liquid argon time projection chamber operated at the CERN Neutrino Platform in 2024 that served as the final prototype of the DUNE HD design.
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Submitted 12 August, 2026; v1 submitted 26 April, 2026;
originally announced April 2026.
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3D-printed microscope with illumination for undergraduate wave optics laboratory
Authors:
S. G. Martanov,
V. A. Prudkoglyad,
A. A. Galiullin,
G. A. Shmakov,
A. Yu. Kuntsevich
Abstract:
We present an educational tool, a microscope with a video camera, that can be fabricated either from a standard microscope or assembled from inexpensive, commercially available components (objectives, beam splitters, LEDs, linear stages) and 3D-printed elements. Usage of interference filters in combination with white light-emitting diode (LED) illumination enables the quantitative study of optical…
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We present an educational tool, a microscope with a video camera, that can be fabricated either from a standard microscope or assembled from inexpensive, commercially available components (objectives, beam splitters, LEDs, linear stages) and 3D-printed elements. Usage of interference filters in combination with white light-emitting diode (LED) illumination enables the quantitative study of optical phenomena such as refraction, interference (e.g., Newton's rings), Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction. Thus, we propose an instrument that can be used to illustrate the theoretical foundations of an undergraduate optics course and beyond.
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Submitted 11 December, 2025;
originally announced December 2025.
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Operation of a Modular 3D-Pixelated Liquid Argon Time-Projection Chamber in a Neutrino Beam
Authors:
DUNE Collaboration,
S. Abbaslu,
A. Abed Abud,
R. Acciarri,
L. P. Accorsi,
M. A. Acero,
M. R. Adames,
G. Adamov,
M. Adamowski,
C. Adriano,
F. Akbar,
F. Alemanno,
N. S. Alex,
K. Allison,
M. Alrashed,
A. Alton,
R. Alvarez,
T. Alves,
A. Aman,
H. Amar,
P. Amedo,
J. Anderson,
D. A. Andrade,
C. Andreopoulos,
M. Andreotti
, et al. (1299 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The 2x2 Demonstrator, a prototype for the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) liquid argon (LAr) Near Detector, was exposed to the Neutrinos from the Main Injector (NuMI) neutrino beam at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab). This detector prototypes a new modular design for a liquid argon time-projection chamber (LArTPC), comprised of a two-by-two array of four modules, each f…
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The 2x2 Demonstrator, a prototype for the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) liquid argon (LAr) Near Detector, was exposed to the Neutrinos from the Main Injector (NuMI) neutrino beam at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab). This detector prototypes a new modular design for a liquid argon time-projection chamber (LArTPC), comprised of a two-by-two array of four modules, each further segmented into two optically-isolated LArTPCs. The 2x2 Demonstrator features a number of pioneering technologies, including a low-profile resistive field shell to establish drift fields, native 3D ionization pixelated imaging, and a high-coverage dielectric light readout system. The 2.4 tonne active mass detector is flanked upstream and downstream by supplemental solid-scintillator tracking planes, repurposed from the MINERvA experiment, which track ionizing particles exiting the argon volume. The antineutrino beam data collected by the detector over a 4.5 day period in 2024 include over 30,000 neutrino interactions in the LAr active volume-the first neutrino interactions reported by a DUNE detector prototype. During its physics-quality run, the 2x2 Demonstrator operated at a nominal drift field of 500 V/cm and maintained good LAr purity, with a stable electron lifetime of approximately 1.25 ms. This paper describes the detector and supporting systems, summarizes the installation and commissioning, and presents the initial validation of collected NuMI beam and off-beam self-triggers. In addition, it highlights observed interactions in the detector volume, including candidate muon anti-neutrino events.
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Submitted 17 June, 2026; v1 submitted 6 September, 2025;
originally announced September 2025.
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Spatial and Temporal Evaluations of the Liquid Argon Purity in ProtoDUNE-SP
Authors:
DUNE Collaboration,
S. Abbaslu,
A. Abed Abud,
R. Acciarri,
L. P. Accorsi,
M. A. Acero,
M. R. Adames,
G. Adamov,
M. Adamowski,
C. Adriano,
F. Akbar,
F. Alemanno,
N. S. Alex,
K. Allison,
M. Alrashed,
A. Alton,
R. Alvarez,
T. Alves,
A. Aman,
H. Amar,
P. Amedo,
J. Anderson,
D. A. Andrade,
C. Andreopoulos,
M. Andreotti
, et al. (1301 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
Liquid argon time projection chambers (LArTPCs) rely on highly pure argon to ensure that ionization electrons produced by charged particles reach readout arrays. ProtoDUNE Single-Phase (ProtoDUNE-SP) was an approximately 700-ton liquid argon detector intended to prototype the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) Far Detector Horizontal Drift module. It contains two drift volumes bisected by…
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Liquid argon time projection chambers (LArTPCs) rely on highly pure argon to ensure that ionization electrons produced by charged particles reach readout arrays. ProtoDUNE Single-Phase (ProtoDUNE-SP) was an approximately 700-ton liquid argon detector intended to prototype the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) Far Detector Horizontal Drift module. It contains two drift volumes bisected by the cathode plane assembly, which is biased to create an almost uniform electric field in both volumes. The DUNE Far Detector modules must have robust cryogenic systems capable of filtering argon and supplying the TPC with clean liquid. This paper will explore comparisons of the argon purity measured by the purity monitors with those measured using muons in the TPC from October 2018 to November 2018. A new method is introduced to measure the liquid argon purity in the TPC using muons crossing both drift volumes of ProtoDUNE-SP. For extended periods on the timescale of weeks, the drift electron lifetime was measured to be above 30 ms using both systems. A particular focus will be placed on the measured purity of argon as a function of position in the detector.
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Submitted 27 August, 2025; v1 submitted 11 July, 2025;
originally announced July 2025.
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European Contributions to Fermilab Accelerator Upgrades and Facilities for the DUNE Experiment
Authors:
DUNE Collaboration,
A. Abed Abud,
R. Acciarri,
M. A. Acero,
M. R. Adames,
G. Adamov,
M. Adamowski,
D. Adams,
M. Adinolfi,
C. Adriano,
A. Aduszkiewicz,
J. Aguilar,
F. Akbar,
F. Alemanno,
N. S. Alex,
K. Allison,
M. Alrashed,
A. Alton,
R. Alvarez,
T. Alves,
A. Aman,
H. Amar,
P. Amedo,
J. Anderson,
D. A. Andrade
, et al. (1322 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The Proton Improvement Plan (PIP-II) to the FNAL accelerator chain and the Long-Baseline Neutrino Facility (LBNF) will provide the world's most intense neutrino beam to the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) enabling a wide-ranging physics program. This document outlines the significant contributions made by European national laboratories and institutes towards realizing the first phase o…
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The Proton Improvement Plan (PIP-II) to the FNAL accelerator chain and the Long-Baseline Neutrino Facility (LBNF) will provide the world's most intense neutrino beam to the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) enabling a wide-ranging physics program. This document outlines the significant contributions made by European national laboratories and institutes towards realizing the first phase of the project with a 1.2 MW neutrino beam. Construction of this first phase is well underway. For DUNE Phase II, this will be closely followed by an upgrade of the beam power to > 2 MW, for which the European groups again have a key role and which will require the continued support of the European community for machine aspects of neutrino physics. Beyond the neutrino beam aspects, LBNF is also responsible for providing unique infrastructure to install and operate the DUNE neutrino detectors at FNAL and at the Sanford Underground Research Facility (SURF). The cryostats for the first two Liquid Argon Time Projection Chamber detector modules at SURF, a contribution of CERN to LBNF, are central to the success of the ongoing execution of DUNE Phase I. Likewise, successful and timely procurement of cryostats for two additional detector modules at SURF will be critical to the success of DUNE Phase II and the overall physics program. The DUNE Collaboration is submitting four main contributions to the 2026 Update of the European Strategy for Particle Physics process. This paper is being submitted to the 'Accelerator technologies' and 'Projects and Large Experiments' streams. Additional inputs related to the DUNE science program, DUNE detector technologies and R&D, and DUNE software and computing, are also being submitted to other streams.
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Submitted 31 March, 2025;
originally announced March 2025.
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DUNE Software and Computing Research and Development
Authors:
DUNE Collaboration,
A. Abed Abud,
R. Acciarri,
M. A. Acero,
M. R. Adames,
G. Adamov,
M. Adamowski,
D. Adams,
M. Adinolfi,
C. Adriano,
A. Aduszkiewicz,
J. Aguilar,
F. Akbar,
F. Alemanno,
N. S. Alex,
K. Allison,
M. Alrashed,
A. Alton,
R. Alvarez,
T. Alves,
A. Aman,
H. Amar,
P. Amedo,
J. Anderson,
D. A. Andrade
, et al. (1322 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The international collaboration designing and constructing the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) at the Long-Baseline Neutrino Facility (LBNF) has developed a two-phase strategy toward the implementation of this leading-edge, large-scale science project. The ambitious physics program of Phase I and Phase II of DUNE is dependent upon deployment and utilization of significant computing res…
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The international collaboration designing and constructing the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) at the Long-Baseline Neutrino Facility (LBNF) has developed a two-phase strategy toward the implementation of this leading-edge, large-scale science project. The ambitious physics program of Phase I and Phase II of DUNE is dependent upon deployment and utilization of significant computing resources, and successful research and development of software (both infrastructure and algorithmic) in order to achieve these scientific goals. This submission discusses the computing resources projections, infrastructure support, and software development needed for DUNE during the coming decades as an input to the European Strategy for Particle Physics Update for 2026. The DUNE collaboration is submitting four main contributions to the 2026 Update of the European Strategy for Particle Physics process. This submission to the 'Computing' stream focuses on DUNE software and computing. Additional inputs related to the DUNE science program, DUNE detector technologies and R&D, and European contributions to Fermilab accelerator upgrades and facilities for the DUNE experiment, are also being submitted to other streams.
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Submitted 31 March, 2025;
originally announced March 2025.
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The DUNE Phase II Detectors
Authors:
DUNE Collaboration,
A. Abed Abud,
R. Acciarri,
M. A. Acero,
M. R. Adames,
G. Adamov,
M. Adamowski,
D. Adams,
M. Adinolfi,
C. Adriano,
A. Aduszkiewicz,
J. Aguilar,
F. Akbar,
F. Alemanno,
N. S. Alex,
K. Allison,
M. Alrashed,
A. Alton,
R. Alvarez,
T. Alves,
A. Aman,
H. Amar,
P. Amedo,
J. Anderson,
D. A. Andrade
, et al. (1322 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The international collaboration designing and constructing the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) at the Long-Baseline Neutrino Facility (LBNF) has developed a two-phase strategy for the implementation of this leading-edge, large-scale science project. The 2023 report of the US Particle Physics Project Prioritization Panel (P5) reaffirmed this vision and strongly endorsed DUNE Phase I and…
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The international collaboration designing and constructing the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) at the Long-Baseline Neutrino Facility (LBNF) has developed a two-phase strategy for the implementation of this leading-edge, large-scale science project. The 2023 report of the US Particle Physics Project Prioritization Panel (P5) reaffirmed this vision and strongly endorsed DUNE Phase I and Phase II, as did the previous European Strategy for Particle Physics. The construction of DUNE Phase I is well underway. DUNE Phase II consists of a third and fourth far detector module, an upgraded near detector complex, and an enhanced > 2 MW beam. The fourth FD module is conceived as a 'Module of Opportunity', aimed at supporting the core DUNE science program while also expanding the physics opportunities with more advanced technologies. The DUNE collaboration is submitting four main contributions to the 2026 Update of the European Strategy for Particle Physics process. This submission to the 'Detector instrumentation' stream focuses on technologies and R&D for the DUNE Phase II detectors. Additional inputs related to the DUNE science program, DUNE software and computing, and European contributions to Fermilab accelerator upgrades and facilities for the DUNE experiment, are also being submitted to other streams.
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Submitted 29 March, 2025;
originally announced March 2025.
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Reconstruction of boosted and resolved multi-Higgs-boson events with symmetry-preserving attention networks
Authors:
Haoyang Li,
Marko Stamenkovic,
Alexander Shmakov,
Michael Fenton,
Darius Shih-Chieh Chao,
Kaitlyn Maiya White,
Caden Mikkelsen,
Jovan Mitic,
Cristina Mantilla Suarez,
Melissa Quinnan,
Greg Landsberg,
Harvey Newman,
Pierre Baldi,
Daniel Whiteson,
Javier Duarte
Abstract:
The production of multiple Higgs bosons at the CERN LHC provides a direct way to measure the trilinear and quartic Higgs self-interaction strengths as well as potential access to beyond the standard model effects that can enhance production at large transverse momentum $p_{\mathrm{T}}$. The largest event fraction arises from the fully hadronic final state in which every Higgs boson decays to a bot…
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The production of multiple Higgs bosons at the CERN LHC provides a direct way to measure the trilinear and quartic Higgs self-interaction strengths as well as potential access to beyond the standard model effects that can enhance production at large transverse momentum $p_{\mathrm{T}}$. The largest event fraction arises from the fully hadronic final state in which every Higgs boson decays to a bottom quark-antiquark pair ($b\bar{b}$). This introduces a combinatorial challenge known as the \emph{jet assignment problem}: assigning jets to sets representing Higgs boson candidates. Symmetry-preserving attention networks (SPA-Nets) have been been developed to address this challenge. However, the complexity of jet assignment increases when simultaneously considering both $H\rightarrow b\bar{b}$ reconstruction possibilities, i.e., two "resolved" small-radius jets each containing a shower initiated by a $b$-quark or one "boosted" large-radius jet containing a merged shower initiated by a $b\bar{b}$ pair. The latter improves the reconstruction efficiency at high $p_{\mathrm{T}}$. In this work, we introduce a generalization to the SPA-Net approach to simultaneously consider both boosted and resolved reconstruction possibilities and unambiguously interpret an event as "fully resolved'', "fully boosted", or in between. We report the performance of baseline methods, the original SPA-Net approach, and our generalized version on nonresonant $HH$ and $HHH$ production at the LHC. Considering both boosted and resolved topologies, our SPA-Net approach increases the Higgs boson reconstruction purity by 57--62\% and the efficiency by 23--38\% compared to the baseline method depending on the final state.
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Submitted 11 August, 2025; v1 submitted 4 December, 2024;
originally announced December 2024.
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AI for Interpretable Chemistry: Predicting Radical Mechanistic Pathways via Contrastive Learning
Authors:
Mohammadamin Tavakoli,
Yin Ting T. Chiu,
Alexander Shmakov,
Ann Marie Carlton,
David Van Vranken,
Pierre Baldi
Abstract:
Deep learning-based reaction predictors have undergone significant architectural evolution. However, their reliance on reactions from the US Patent Office results in a lack of interpretable predictions and limited generalization capability to other chemistry domains, such as radical and atmospheric chemistry. To address these challenges, we introduce a new reaction predictor system, RMechRP, that…
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Deep learning-based reaction predictors have undergone significant architectural evolution. However, their reliance on reactions from the US Patent Office results in a lack of interpretable predictions and limited generalization capability to other chemistry domains, such as radical and atmospheric chemistry. To address these challenges, we introduce a new reaction predictor system, RMechRP, that leverages contrastive learning in conjunction with mechanistic pathways, the most interpretable representation of chemical reactions. Specifically designed for radical reactions, RMechRP provides different levels of interpretation of chemical reactions. We develop and train multiple deep-learning models using RMechDB, a public database of radical reactions, to establish the first benchmark for predicting radical reactions. Our results demonstrate the effectiveness of RMechRP in providing accurate and interpretable predictions of radical reactions, and its potential for various applications in atmospheric chemistry.
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Submitted 2 November, 2023;
originally announced November 2023.
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Rxn Hypergraph: a Hypergraph Attention Model for Chemical Reaction Representation
Authors:
Mohammadamin Tavakoli,
Alexander Shmakov,
Francesco Ceccarelli,
Pierre Baldi
Abstract:
It is fundamental for science and technology to be able to predict chemical reactions and their properties. To achieve such skills, it is important to develop good representations of chemical reactions, or good deep learning architectures that can learn such representations automatically from the data. There is currently no universal and widely adopted method for robustly representing chemical rea…
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It is fundamental for science and technology to be able to predict chemical reactions and their properties. To achieve such skills, it is important to develop good representations of chemical reactions, or good deep learning architectures that can learn such representations automatically from the data. There is currently no universal and widely adopted method for robustly representing chemical reactions. Most existing methods suffer from one or more drawbacks, such as: (1) lacking universality; (2) lacking robustness; (3) lacking interpretability; or (4) requiring excessive manual pre-processing. Here we exploit graph-based representations of molecular structures to develop and test a hypergraph attention neural network approach to solve at once the reaction representation and property-prediction problems, alleviating the aforementioned drawbacks. We evaluate this hypergraph representation in three experiments using three independent data sets of chemical reactions. In all experiments, the hypergraph-based approach matches or outperforms other representations and their corresponding models of chemical reactions while yielding interpretable multi-level representations.
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Submitted 2 January, 2022;
originally announced January 2022.
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Investigation of Anti-Relaxation Coatings for Alkali-Metal Vapor Cells Using Surface Science Techniques
Authors:
S. J. Seltzer,
D. J. Michalak,
M. H. Donaldson,
M. V. Balabas,
S. K. Barber,
S. L. Bernasek,
M. -A. Bouchiat,
A. Hexemer,
A. M. Hibberd,
D. F. Jackson Kimball,
C. Jaye,
T. Karaulanov,
F. A. Narducci,
S. A. Rangwala,
H. G. Robinson,
A. K. Shmakov,
D. L. Voronov,
V. V. Yashchuk,
A. Pines,
D. Budker
Abstract:
Many technologies based on cells containing alkali-metal atomic vapor benefit from the use of anti-relaxation surface coatings in order to preserve atomic spin polarization. In particular, paraffin has been used for this purpose for several decades and has been demonstrated to allow an atom to experience up to 10,000 collisions with the walls of its container without depolarizing, but the details…
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Many technologies based on cells containing alkali-metal atomic vapor benefit from the use of anti-relaxation surface coatings in order to preserve atomic spin polarization. In particular, paraffin has been used for this purpose for several decades and has been demonstrated to allow an atom to experience up to 10,000 collisions with the walls of its container without depolarizing, but the details of its operation remain poorly understood. We apply modern surface and bulk techniques to the study of paraffin coatings, in order to characterize the properties that enable the effective preservation of alkali spin polarization. These methods include Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, atomic force microscopy, near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. We also compare the light-induced atomic desorption yields of several different paraffin materials. Experimental results include the determination that crystallinity of the coating material is unnecessary, and the detection of C=C double bonds present within a particular class of effective paraffin coatings. Further study should lead to the development of more robust paraffin anti-relaxation coatings, as well as the design and synthesis of new classes of coating materials.
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Submitted 11 October, 2010; v1 submitted 23 February, 2010;
originally announced February 2010.