Language-Models-as-a-Service: Overview of a New Paradigm and its Challenges.

Aleksandar Petrov Emanuele La Malfa Aleksandar Petrov Simon Frieder Christoph Weinhuber Ryan Burnell Raza Nazar Anthony G. Cohn 0001 Nigel Shadbolt Michael J. Wooldridge Language-Models-as-a-Service: Overview of a New Paradigm and its Challenges. 28742 2025 AAAI https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v39i27.35133 conf/aaai/2025 db/conf/aaai/aaai2025.html#MalfaPFWBN0SW25 Francisco Eiras Aleksandar Petrov Philip Torr 0001 M. Pawan Kumar Adel Bibi Do as I do (Safely): Mitigating Task-Specific Fine-tuning Risks in Large Language Models. 2025 ICLR https://openreview.net/forum?id=lXE5lB6ppV conf/iclr/2025 db/conf/iclr/iclr2025.html#EirasP0KB25

Aleksandar Petrov Shruti Agarwal Philip H. S. Torr Adel Bibi John P. Collomosse On the Coexistence and Ensembling of Watermarks. 2025 January abs/2501.17356 CoRR https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2501.17356 db/journals/corr/corr2501.html#abs-2501-17356 streams/journals/corr

Aleksandar Petrov Mark Sandler 0002 Andrey Zhmoginov Nolan Miller Max Vladymyrov Long Context In-Context Compression by Getting to the Gist of Gisting. 2025 April abs/2504.08934 CoRR https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2504.08934 db/journals/corr/corr2504.html#abs-2504-08934 streams/journals/corr

Sven Gowal Rudy Bunel Florian Stimberg David Stutz Guillermo Ortiz-Jiménez Christina Kouridi Mel Vecerík Jamie Hayes Sylvestre-Alvise Rebuffi Paul Bernard Chris Gamble Miklós Z. Horváth Fabian Kaczmarczyck Alex Kaskasoli Aleksandar Petrov Ilia Shumailov Meghana Thotakuri Olivia Wiles Jessica Yung Zahra Ahmed Victor Martin Simon Rosen Christopher Savcak Armin Senoner Nidhi Vyas Pushmeet Kohli SynthID-Image: Image watermarking at internet scale. 2025 October abs/2510.09263 CoRR https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2510.09263 db/journals/corr/corr2510.html#abs-2510-09263 streams/journals/corr

Aleksandar Petrov Pierre Fernandez Tomás Soucek Hady Elsahar We Can Hide More Bits: The Unused Watermarking Capacity in Theory and in Practice. 2025 October abs/2510.12812 CoRR https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2510.12812 db/journals/corr/corr2510.html#abs-2510-12812 streams/journals/corr

Emanuele La Malfa Aleksandar Petrov Simon Frieder Christoph Weinhuber Ryan Burnell Raza Nazar Anthony G. Cohn 0001 Nigel Shadbolt Michael J. Wooldridge Language-Models-as-a-Service: Overview of a New Paradigm and its Challenges. 1497-1523 2024 80 J. Artif. Intell. Res. https://doi.org/10.1613/jair.1.15865 https://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q130797848 db/journals/jair/jair80.html#MalfaPFWBNCSW24 streams/journals/jair

Usman Anwar Abulhair Saparov Javier Rando Daniel Paleka Miles Turpin Peter Hase Ekdeep Singh Lubana Erik Jenner Stephen Casper Oliver Sourbut Benjamin L. Edelman Zhaowei Zhang 0001 Mario Günther Anton Korinek José Hernández-Orallo Lewis Hammond Eric J. Bigelow Alexander Pan Lauro Langosco Tomasz Korbak Heidi Chenyu Zhang Ruiqi Zhong Seán Ó hÉigeartaigh Gabriel Recchia Giulio Corsi Alan Chan Markus Anderljung Lilian Edwards Aleksandar Petrov Christian Schröder de Witt Sumeet Ramesh Motwani Yoshua Bengio Danqi Chen 0001 Philip Torr 0001 Samuel Albanie Tegan Maharaj Jakob Nicolaus Foerster Florian Tramèr He He 0001 Atoosa Kasirzadeh Yejin Choi 0001 David Krueger 0001 Foundational Challenges in Assuring Alignment and Safety of Large Language Models. 2024 2024 Trans. Mach. Learn. Res. https://openreview.net/forum?id=oVTkOs8Pka db/journals/tmlr/tmlr2024.html#AnwarSRPTHLJCSE24

Aleksandar Petrov Philip Torr 0001 Adel Bibi When Do Prompting and Prefix-Tuning Work? A Theory of Capabilities and Limitations. 2024 ICLR https://openreview.net/forum?id=JewzobRhay conf/iclr/2024 db/conf/iclr/iclr2024.html#Petrov0B24 Francisco Eiras Aleksandar Petrov Bertie Vidgen Christian Schröder de Witt Fabio Pizzati Katherine Elkins Supratik Mukhopadhyay Adel Bibi Botos Csaba Fabro Steibel Fazl Barez Genevieve Smith Gianluca Guadagni Jon Chun Jordi Cabot Joseph Marvin Imperial Juan A. Nolazco-Flores Lori Landay Matthew Thomas Jackson Paul Röttger Philip H. S. Torr Trevor Darrell Yong Suk Lee Jakob N. Foerster Position: Near to Mid-term Risks and Opportunities of Open-Source Generative AI. 2024 ICML https://proceedings.mlr.press/v235/eiras24b.html https://openreview.net/forum?id=8q4EPdjTLE conf/icml/2024 db/conf/icml/icml2024.html#EirasPVWPEMBCSB24 12348-12370 Aleksandar Petrov Philip Torr 0001 Adel Bibi Prompting a Pretrained Transformer Can Be a Universal Approximator. 2024 ICML https://proceedings.mlr.press/v235/petrov24a.html https://openreview.net/forum?id=3mQ6ZKTSQl conf/icml/2024 db/conf/icml/icml2024.html#Petrov0B24 40523-40550 Aleksandar Petrov Tom A. Lamb Alasdair Paren Philip Torr 0001 Adel Bibi Universal In-Context Approximation By Prompting Fully Recurrent Models. 2024 NeurIPS http://papers.nips.cc/paper_files/paper/2024/hash/848784373188ddf641079524e89e0ac9-Abstract-Conference.html conf/nips/2024 db/conf/nips/neurips2024.html#PetrovLP0B24

Aleksandar Petrov Philip H. S. Torr Adel Bibi Prompting a Pretrained Transformer Can Be a Universal Approximator. 2024 abs/2402.14753 CoRR https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2402.14753 db/journals/corr/corr2402.html#abs-2402-14753

Francisco Eiras Aleksandar Petrov Bertie Vidgen Christian Schröder de Witt Fabio Pizzati Katherine Elkins Supratik Mukhopadhyay Adel Bibi Botos Csaba Fabro Steibel Fazl Barez Genevieve Smith Gianluca Guadagni Jon Chun Jordi Cabot Joseph Marvin Imperial Juan A. Nolazco-Flores Lori Landay Matthew Thomas Jackson Paul Röttger Philip H. S. Torr Trevor Darrell Yong Suk Lee Jakob N. Foerster Near to Mid-term Risks and Opportunities of Open Source Generative AI. 2024 abs/2404.17047 CoRR https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2404.17047 db/journals/corr/corr2404.html#abs-2404-17047

Francisco Eiras Aleksandar Petrov Bertie Vidgen Christian Schröder de Witt Fabio Pizzati Katherine Elkins Supratik Mukhopadhyay Adel Bibi Aaron Purewal Botos Csaba Fabro Steibel Fazel Keshtkar Fazl Barez Genevieve Smith Gianluca Guadagni Jon Chun Jordi Cabot Joseph Marvin Imperial Juan Arturo Nolazco Lori Landay Matthew Thomas Jackson Philip H. S. Torr Trevor Darrell Yong Suk Lee Jakob N. Foerster Risks and Opportunities of Open-Source Generative AI. 2024 abs/2405.08597 CoRR https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2405.08597 https://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q135644817 db/journals/corr/corr2405.html#abs-2405-08597

Aleksandar Petrov Tom A. Lamb Alasdair Paren Philip Torr 0001 Adel Bibi Universal In-Context Approximation By Prompting Fully Recurrent Models. 2024 abs/2406.01424 CoRR https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2406.01424 db/journals/corr/corr2406.html#abs-2406-01424

Francisco Eiras Aleksandar Petrov Philip H. S. Torr M. Pawan Kumar Adel Bibi Mimicking User Data: On Mitigating Fine-Tuning Risks in Closed Large Language Models. 2024 abs/2406.10288 CoRR https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2406.10288 db/journals/corr/corr2406.html#abs-2406-10288

Emil Popov Hristov Dessislava Petrova-Antonova Aleksandar Petrov Milena Borukova Evgeny Shirinyan Remote Sensing Data Preparation for Recognition and Classification of Building Roofs. 80 2023 May 8 Data 5 https://doi.org/10.3390/data8050080 db/journals/data/data8.html#HristovPPBS23

Aleksandar Petrov Francisco Eiras Amartya Sanyal Philip H. S. Torr Adel Bibi Certifying Ensembles: A General Certification Theory with S-Lipschitzness. 27709-27736 2023 ICML https://proceedings.mlr.press/v202/petrov23a.html conf/icml/2023 db/conf/icml/icml2023.html#PetrovESTB23 Aleksandar Petrov Emanuele La Malfa Philip H. S. Torr Adel Bibi Language Model Tokenizers Introduce Unfairness Between Languages. 2023 NeurIPS http://papers.nips.cc/paper_files/paper/2023/hash/74bb24dca8334adce292883b4b651eda-Abstract-Conference.html conf/nips/2023 db/conf/nips/neurips2023.html#PetrovMTB23

Aleksandar Petrov Francisco Eiras Amartya Sanyal Philip H. S. Torr Adel Bibi Certifying Ensembles: A General Certification Theory with S-Lipschitzness. 2023 abs/2304.13019 CoRR https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2304.13019 db/journals/corr/corr2304.html#abs-2304-13019

Aleksandar Petrov Emanuele La Malfa Philip H. S. Torr Adel Bibi Language Model Tokenizers Introduce Unfairness Between Languages. 2023 abs/2305.15425 CoRR https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2305.15425 db/journals/corr/corr2305.html#abs-2305-15425

Emanuele La Malfa Aleksandar Petrov Simon Frieder Christoph Weinhuber Ryan Burnell Anthony G. Cohn 0001 Nigel Shadbolt Michael J. Wooldridge The ARRT of Language-Models-as-a-Service: Overview of a New Paradigm and its Challenges. 2023 abs/2309.16573 CoRR https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2309.16573 db/journals/corr/corr2309.html#abs-2309-16573

Aleksandar Petrov Philip H. S. Torr Adel Bibi When Do Prompting and Prefix-Tuning Work? A Theory of Capabilities and Limitations. 2023 abs/2310.19698 CoRR https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2310.19698 db/journals/corr/corr2310.html#abs-2310-19698

Aleksandar Petrov Carter Fang Khang Minh Pham You Hong Eng James Guo Ming Fu Scott Drew Pendleton HiddenGems: Efficient safety boundary detection with active learning. 5147-5154 2022 IROS https://doi.org/10.1109/IROS47612.2022.9982243 conf/iros/2022 db/conf/iros/iros2022.html#PetrovFPEFP22

Aleksandar Petrov Marta Kwiatkowska Robustness of Unsupervised Representation Learning without Labels. 2022 abs/2210.04076 CoRR https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2210.04076 db/journals/corr/corr2210.html#abs-2210-04076

Aleksandar Petrov Carter Fang Khang Minh Pham You Hong Eng James Guo Ming Fu Scott Drew Pendleton HiddenGems: Efficient safety boundary detection with active learning. 2022 abs/2210.13956 CoRR https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2210.13956 db/journals/corr/corr2210.html#abs-2210-13956

Andrei Cramariuc Aleksandar Petrov Rohit Suri Mayank Mittal Roland Siegwart Cesar Cadena 0001 Learning Camera Miscalibration Detection. 4997-5003 2020 ICRA https://doi.org/10.1109/ICRA40945.2020.9197378 conf/icra/2020 db/conf/icra/icra2020.html#CramariucPSMSC20 Jacopo Tani Andrea F. Daniele Gianmarco Bernasconi Amaury Camus Aleksandar Petrov Anthony Courchesne Bhairav Mehta Rohit Suri Tomasz Zaluska Matthew R. Walter Emilio Frazzoli Liam Paull Andrea Censi Integrated Benchmarking and Design for Reproducible and Accessible Evaluation of Robotic Agents. 6229-6236 2020 IROS https://doi.org/10.1109/IROS45743.2020.9341677 conf/iros/2020 db/conf/iros/iros2020.html#TaniDBCPCMSZWFP20

Andrei Cramariuc Aleksandar Petrov Rohit Suri Mayank Mittal Roland Siegwart Cesar Cadena 0001 Learning Camera Miscalibration Detection. 2020 abs/2005.11711 CoRR https://arxiv.org/abs/2005.11711 db/journals/corr/corr2005.html#abs-2005-11711

Jacopo Tani Andrea F. Daniele Gianmarco Bernasconi Amaury Camus Aleksandar Petrov Anthony Courchesne Bhairav Mehta Rohit Suri Tomasz Zaluska Matthew R. Walter Emilio Frazzoli Liam Paull Andrea Censi Integrated Benchmarking and Design for Reproducible and Accessible Evaluation of Robotic Agents. 2020 abs/2009.04362 CoRR https://arxiv.org/abs/2009.04362 db/journals/corr/corr2009.html#abs-2009-04362

Aleksandar Petrov Tomislav Kartalov Zoran A. Ivanovski Blocking effect reduction in low bitrate video on a mobile platform. 3937-3940 2009 ICIP https://doi.org/10.1109/ICIP.2009.5414031 conf/icip/2009 db/conf/icip/icip2009.html#PetrovKI09 Shruti Agarwal Zahra Ahmed Samuel Albanie Markus Anderljung Usman Anwar Fazl Barez Yoshua Bengio Paul Bernard Gianmarco Bernasconi Adel Bibi Eric J. Bigelow Milena Borukova Rudy Bunel Ryan Burnell Jordi Cabot Amaury Camus Stephen Casper Andrea Censi Alan Chan Danqi Chen 0001 Yejin Choi 0001 Jon Chun Anthony G. Cohn 0001 John P. Collomosse Giulio Corsi Anthony Courchesne Andrei Cramariuc Botos Csaba Andrea F. Daniele Trevor Darrell Benjamin L. Edelman Lilian Edwards Francisco Girbal EirasFrancisco Eiras Katherine Elkins Hady ElSaharHady Elsahar You Hong Eng Carter Fang Pierre Fernandez Jakob N. FoersterJakob Nicolaus Foerster Emilio Frazzoli Simon Frieder James Guo Ming Fu Chris Gamble Sven Gowal Gianluca Guadagni Mario Günther Lewis Hammond Peter Hase Jamie Hayes He He 0001 Seán Ó hÉigeartaigh José Hernández-Orallo Miklós Z. Horváth Emil Hristov 0001Emil Popov Hristov Joseph Marvin Imperial Zoran A. Ivanovski Matthew Thomas Jackson Erik Jenner Fabian Kaczmarczyck Tomislav Kartalov Atoosa Kasirzadeh Alex Kaskasoli Fazel Keshtkar Pushmeet Kohli Tomasz Korbak Anton Korinek Christina Kouridi David Krueger 0001 M. Pawan Kumar Marta Z. KwiatkowskaMarta Kwiatkowska Tom A. Lamb Lori Landay Lauro Langosco di LangoscoLauro Langosco Yongsuk LeeYong Suk Lee Cesar Dario Cadena LermaCesar Cadena 0001 Ekdeep Singh Lubana Tegan Maharaj Emanuele La Malfa Victor Martin Bhairav Mehta Nolan Miller Mayank Mittal Sumeet Ramesh Motwani Supratik Mukhopadhyay Raza Nazar Juan A. Nolazco-FloresJuan Arturo Nolazco Guillermo Ortiz-Jiménez Daniel Paleka Alexander Pan Alasdair Paren Liam Paull Scott PendletonScott Drew Pendleton Dessislava Petrova-Antonova Khang Minh Pham Fabio Pizzati Aaron Purewal Javier Rando Sylvestre-Alvise Rebuffi Gabriel Recchia Simon Rosen Paul Röttger Mark Sandler 0002 Amartya Sanyal Abulhair Saparov Christopher Savcak Armin Senoner Nigel Shadbolt Evgeny Shirinyan Ilia Shumailov Roland Siegwart Genevieve Smith Tomás Soucek Oliver Sourbut Fabro Steibel Florian Stimberg David Stutz Rohit Suri Jacopo Tani Meghana Thotakuri Philip Torr 0001Philip H. S. Torr Florian Tramèr Miles Turpin Mel Vecerík Bertie Vidgen Max Vladymyrov Nidhi Vyas Matthew R. Walter Christoph Weinhuber Olivia Wiles Christian Schröder de Witt Michael J. Wooldridge Jessica Yung Tomasz Zaluska Heidi C. ZhangHeidi Chenyu Zhang Zhaowei Zhang 0001 Andrey Zhmoginov Ruiqi Zhong