-
Radiopurity material assays and radiation exposure projections for superconducting qubit measurements at SNOLAB
Authors:
Y. Ahmed,
B. Binoy,
R. Bunker,
D. Chauhan,
P. Delsing,
R. Germond,
J. Hall,
Z. Hong,
A. Iqbal,
V. Iyer,
A. Klepikova,
A. Kubik,
S. P. Mantry,
A. C. Masuskapoe,
C. C. Monk,
G. Peng,
P. Qin,
W. Rau,
T. Reynolds,
M. Stukel,
C. M. Wilson,
B. Zatschler,
S. Zatschler,
A. Zuniga
Abstract:
Interactions of cosmic rays and other forms of ionizing radiation pose a significant challenge to the reliable operation of state-of-the-art quantum devices and error correction in quantum computing based on superconducting circuits which are typically fabricated on semiconductor substrates. Shielded by 2 km of rock overburden, the Cryogenic Underground TEst facility (CUTE) at SNOLAB provides a un…
▽ More
Interactions of cosmic rays and other forms of ionizing radiation pose a significant challenge to the reliable operation of state-of-the-art quantum devices and error correction in quantum computing based on superconducting circuits which are typically fabricated on semiconductor substrates. Shielded by 2 km of rock overburden, the Cryogenic Underground TEst facility (CUTE) at SNOLAB provides a unique ultra-low radiation environment to probe the performance of quantum technologies with a particular interest in quantum coherence studies. In this article, we present the findings of an extensive material assaying program in preparation for the first underground operation of superconducting qubits at SNOLAB. The radioactivity levels identified by the material assays enter a thorough Monte Carlo study based on the Geant4 particle physics tracking code. From these simulations, we estimate the rates of energy deposits from radiogenic sources expected for a quantum-device assembly operated in the CUTE facility. We further characterize the spectral components of the projected background and identify the dominant particle interaction types. Finally, we outline how crystal dynamics simulations using the G4CMP solid-state physics extension for Geant4 can inform the community-wide efforts to identify effective strategies to mitigate the effects of high-energy particle impacts.
△ Less
Submitted 17 July, 2026;
originally announced July 2026.
-
A Method to Load Tellurium in Liquid Scintillator for the Study of Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay
Authors:
D. J. Auty,
D. Bartlett,
S. D. Biller,
D. Chauhan,
M. Chen,
O. Chkvorets,
S. Connolly,
X. Dai,
E. Fletcher,
K. Frankiewicz,
D. Gooding,
C. Grant,
S. Hall,
D. Horne,
S. Hans,
B. Hreljac,
T. Kaptanoglu,
B. Krar,
C. Kraus,
T. Kroupova',
I. Lam,
Y. Liu,
S. Maguire,
C. Miller,
S. Manecki
, et al. (12 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
A method has been developed to load tellurium into liquid scintillator so as to permit searches for neutrinoless double beta decay with high sensitivity. The approach involves the synthesis of an oil-soluble tellurium compound from telluric acid and an organic diol. The process utilises distillable chemicals that can be safely handled underground and affords low radioactive backgrounds, low optica…
▽ More
A method has been developed to load tellurium into liquid scintillator so as to permit searches for neutrinoless double beta decay with high sensitivity. The approach involves the synthesis of an oil-soluble tellurium compound from telluric acid and an organic diol. The process utilises distillable chemicals that can be safely handled underground and affords low radioactive backgrounds, low optical absorption and high light yields at loading levels of at least several percent Te by weight.
△ Less
Submitted 4 April, 2023; v1 submitted 23 December, 2022;
originally announced December 2022.
-
The SNO+ Experiment
Authors:
SNO+ Collaboration,
:,
V. Albanese,
R. Alves,
M. R. Anderson,
S. Andringa,
L. Anselmo,
E. Arushanova,
S. Asahi,
M. Askins,
D. J. Auty,
A. R. Back,
S. Back,
F. Barão,
Z. Barnard,
A. Barr,
N. Barros,
D. Bartlett,
R. Bayes,
C. Beaudoin,
E. W. Beier,
G. Berardi,
A. Bialek,
S. D. Biller,
E. Blucher
, et al. (229 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The SNO+ experiment is located 2 km underground at SNOLAB in Sudbury, Canada. A low background search for neutrinoless double beta ($0νββ$) decay will be conducted using 780 tonnes of liquid scintillator loaded with 3.9 tonnes of natural tellurium, corresponding to 1.3 tonnes of $^{130}$Te. This paper provides a general overview of the SNO+ experiment, including detector design, construction of pr…
▽ More
The SNO+ experiment is located 2 km underground at SNOLAB in Sudbury, Canada. A low background search for neutrinoless double beta ($0νββ$) decay will be conducted using 780 tonnes of liquid scintillator loaded with 3.9 tonnes of natural tellurium, corresponding to 1.3 tonnes of $^{130}$Te. This paper provides a general overview of the SNO+ experiment, including detector design, construction of process plants, commissioning efforts, electronics upgrades, data acquisition systems, and calibration techniques. The SNO+ collaboration is reusing the acrylic vessel, PMT array, and electronics of the SNO detector, having made a number of experimental upgrades and essential adaptations for use with the liquid scintillator. With low backgrounds and a low energy threshold, the SNO+ collaboration will also pursue a rich physics program beyond the search for $0νββ$ decay, including studies of geo- and reactor antineutrinos, supernova and solar neutrinos, and exotic physics such as the search for invisible nucleon decay. The SNO+ approach to the search for $0νββ$ decay is scalable: a future phase with high $^{130}$Te-loading is envisioned to probe an effective Majorana mass in the inverted mass ordering region.
△ Less
Submitted 25 August, 2021; v1 submitted 23 April, 2021;
originally announced April 2021.
-
Development, characterisation, and deployment of the SNO+ liquid scintillator
Authors:
SNO+ Collaboration,
:,
M. R. Anderson,
S. Andringa,
L. Anselmo,
E. Arushanova,
S. Asahi,
M. Askins,
D. J. Auty,
A. R. Back,
Z. Barnard,
N. Barros,
D. Bartlett,
F. Barão,
R. Bayes,
E. W. Beier,
A. Bialek,
S. D. Biller,
E. Blucher,
R. Bonventre,
M. Boulay,
D. Braid,
E. Caden,
E. J. Callaghan,
J. Caravaca
, et al. (201 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
A liquid scintillator consisting of linear alkylbenzene as the solvent and 2,5-diphenyloxazole as the fluor was developed for the SNO+ experiment. This mixture was chosen as it is compatible with acrylic and has a competitive light yield to pre-existing liquid scintillators while conferring other advantages including longer attenuation lengths, superior safety characteristics, chemical simplicity,…
▽ More
A liquid scintillator consisting of linear alkylbenzene as the solvent and 2,5-diphenyloxazole as the fluor was developed for the SNO+ experiment. This mixture was chosen as it is compatible with acrylic and has a competitive light yield to pre-existing liquid scintillators while conferring other advantages including longer attenuation lengths, superior safety characteristics, chemical simplicity, ease of handling, and logistical availability. Its properties have been extensively characterized and are presented here. This liquid scintillator is now used in several neutrino physics experiments in addition to SNO+.
△ Less
Submitted 21 February, 2021; v1 submitted 25 November, 2020;
originally announced November 2020.
-
Measurement of neutron-proton capture in the SNO+ water phase
Authors:
The SNO+ Collaboration,
:,
M. R. Anderson,
S. Andringa,
M. Askins,
D. J. Auty,
N. Barros,
F. Barão,
R. Bayes,
E. W. Beier,
A. Bialek,
S. D. Biller,
E. Blucher,
R. Bonventre,
M. Boulay,
E. Caden,
E. J. Callaghan,
J. Caravaca,
D. Chauhan,
M. Chen,
O. Chkvorets,
B. Cleveland,
M. A. Cox,
M. M. Depatie,
J. Dittmer
, et al. (108 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The SNO+ experiment collected data as a low-threshold water Cherenkov detector from September 2017 to July 2019. Measurements of the 2.2-MeV $γ$ produced by neutron capture on hydrogen have been made using an Am-Be calibration source, for which a large fraction of emitted neutrons are produced simultaneously with a 4.4-MeV $γ$. Analysis of the delayed coincidence between the 4.4-MeV $γ$ and the 2.…
▽ More
The SNO+ experiment collected data as a low-threshold water Cherenkov detector from September 2017 to July 2019. Measurements of the 2.2-MeV $γ$ produced by neutron capture on hydrogen have been made using an Am-Be calibration source, for which a large fraction of emitted neutrons are produced simultaneously with a 4.4-MeV $γ$. Analysis of the delayed coincidence between the 4.4-MeV $γ$ and the 2.2-MeV capture $γ$ revealed a neutron detection efficiency that is centered around 50% and varies at the level of 1% across the inner region of the detector, which to our knowledge is the highest efficiency achieved among pure water Cherenkov detectors. In addition, the neutron capture time constant was measured and converted to a thermal neutron-proton capture cross section of $336.3^{+1.2}_{-1.5}$ mb.
△ Less
Submitted 13 July, 2020; v1 submitted 24 February, 2020;
originally announced February 2020.
-
Search for invisible modes of nucleon decay in water with the SNO+ detector
Authors:
SNO+ Collaboration,
:,
M. Anderson,
S. Andringa,
E. Arushanova,
S. Asahi,
M. Askins,
D. J. Auty,
A. R. Back,
Z. Barnard,
N. Barros,
D. Bartlett,
F. Barão,
R. Bayes,
E. W. Beier,
A. Bialek,
S. D. Biller,
E. Blucher,
R. Bonventre,
M. Boulay,
D. Braid,
E. Caden,
E. J. Callaghan,
J. Caravaca,
J. Carvalho
, et al. (173 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
This paper reports results from a search for nucleon decay through 'invisible' modes, where no visible energy is directly deposited during the decay itself, during the initial water phase of SNO+. However, such decays within the oxygen nucleus would produce an excited daughter that would subsequently de-excite, often emitting detectable gamma rays. A search for such gamma rays yields limits of…
▽ More
This paper reports results from a search for nucleon decay through 'invisible' modes, where no visible energy is directly deposited during the decay itself, during the initial water phase of SNO+. However, such decays within the oxygen nucleus would produce an excited daughter that would subsequently de-excite, often emitting detectable gamma rays. A search for such gamma rays yields limits of $2.5 \times 10^{29}$ y at 90% Bayesian credibility level (with a prior uniform in rate) for the partial lifetime of the neutron, and $3.6 \times 10^{29}$ y for the partial lifetime of the proton, the latter a 70% improvement on the previous limit from SNO. We also present partial lifetime limits for invisible dinucleon modes of $1.3\times 10^{28}$ y for $nn$, $2.6\times 10^{28}$ y for $pn$ and $4.7\times 10^{28}$ y for $pp$, an improvement over existing limits by close to three orders of magnitude for the latter two.
△ Less
Submitted 13 December, 2018;
originally announced December 2018.
-
The search for neutron-antineutron oscillations at the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory
Authors:
SNO Collaboration,
B. Aharmim,
S. N. Ahmed,
A. E. Anthony,
N. Barros,
E. W. Beier,
A. Bellerive,
B. Beltran,
M. Bergevin,
S. D. Biller,
K. Boudjemline,
M. G. Boulay,
B. Cai,
Y. D. Chan,
D. Chauhan,
M. Chen,
B. T. Cleveland,
G. A. Cox,
X. Dai,
H. Deng,
J. A. Detwiler,
P. J. Doe,
G. Doucas,
P. -L. Drouin,
F. A. Duncan
, et al. (100 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
Tests on $B-L$ symmetry breaking models are important probes to search for new physics. One proposed model with $Δ(B-L)=2$ involves the oscillations of a neutron to an antineutron. In this paper a new limit on this process is derived for the data acquired from all three operational phases of the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory experiment. The search was concentrated in oscillations occurring within t…
▽ More
Tests on $B-L$ symmetry breaking models are important probes to search for new physics. One proposed model with $Δ(B-L)=2$ involves the oscillations of a neutron to an antineutron. In this paper a new limit on this process is derived for the data acquired from all three operational phases of the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory experiment. The search was concentrated in oscillations occurring within the deuteron, and 23 events are observed against a background expectation of 30.5 events. These translate to a lower limit on the nuclear lifetime of $1.48\times 10^{31}$ years at 90% confidence level (CL) when no restriction is placed on the signal likelihood space (unbounded). Alternatively, a lower limit on the nuclear lifetime was found to be $1.18\times 10^{31}$ years at 90% CL when the signal was forced into a positive likelihood space (bounded). Values for the free oscillation time derived from various models are also provided in this article. This is the first search for neutron-antineutron oscillation with the deuteron as a target.
△ Less
Submitted 1 May, 2017;
originally announced May 2017.
-
Current Status and Future Prospects of the SNO+ Experiment
Authors:
SNO+ Collaboration,
:,
S. Andringa,
E. Arushanova,
S. Asahi,
M. Askins,
D. J. Auty,
A. R. Back,
Z. Barnard,
N. Barros,
E. W. Beier,
A. Bialek,
S. D. Biller,
E. Blucher,
R. Bonventre,
D. Braid,
E. Caden,
E. Callaghan,
J. Caravaca,
J. Carvalho,
L. Cavalli,
D. Chauhan,
M. Chen,
O. Chkvorets,
K. Clark
, et al. (133 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
SNO+ is a large liquid scintillator-based experiment located 2km underground at SNOLAB, Sudbury, Canada. It reuses the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory detector, consisting of a 12m diameter acrylic vessel which will be filled with about 780 tonnes of ultra-pure liquid scintillator. Designed as a multipurpose neutrino experiment, the primary goal of SNO+ is a search for the neutrinoless double-beta de…
▽ More
SNO+ is a large liquid scintillator-based experiment located 2km underground at SNOLAB, Sudbury, Canada. It reuses the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory detector, consisting of a 12m diameter acrylic vessel which will be filled with about 780 tonnes of ultra-pure liquid scintillator. Designed as a multipurpose neutrino experiment, the primary goal of SNO+ is a search for the neutrinoless double-beta decay (0$νββ$) of 130Te. In Phase I, the detector will be loaded with 0.3% natural tellurium, corresponding to nearly 800 kg of 130Te, with an expected effective Majorana neutrino mass sensitivity in the region of 55-133 meV, just above the inverted mass hierarchy. Recently, the possibility of deploying up to ten times more natural tellurium has been investigated, which would enable SNO+ to achieve sensitivity deep into the parameter space for the inverted neutrino mass hierarchy in the future. Additionally, SNO+ aims to measure reactor antineutrino oscillations, low-energy solar neutrinos, and geoneutrinos, to be sensitive to supernova neutrinos, and to search for exotic physics. A first phase with the detector filled with water will begin soon, with the scintillator phase expected to start after a few months of water data taking. The 0$νββ$ Phase I is foreseen for 2017.
△ Less
Submitted 28 January, 2016; v1 submitted 24 August, 2015;
originally announced August 2015.
-
The calibration system for the photomultiplier array of the SNO+ experiment
Authors:
R. Alves,
S. Andringa,
S. Bradbury,
J. Carvalho,
D. Chauhan,
K. Clark,
I. Coulter,
F. Descamps,
E. Falk,
L. Gurriana,
C. Kraus,
G. Lefeuvre,
A. Maio,
J. Maneira,
M. Mottram,
S. Peeters,
J. Rose,
L. Seabra,
J. Sinclair,
P. Skensved,
J. Waterfield,
R. White,
J. R. Wilson
Abstract:
A light injection system using LEDs and optical fibres was designed for the calibration and monitoring of the photomultiplier array of the SNO+ experiment at SNOLAB. Large volume, non-segmented, low-background detectors for rare event physics, such as the multi-purpose SNO+ experiment, need a calibration system that allow an accurate and regular measurement of the performance parameters of their p…
▽ More
A light injection system using LEDs and optical fibres was designed for the calibration and monitoring of the photomultiplier array of the SNO+ experiment at SNOLAB. Large volume, non-segmented, low-background detectors for rare event physics, such as the multi-purpose SNO+ experiment, need a calibration system that allow an accurate and regular measurement of the performance parameters of their photomultiplier arrays, while minimising the risk of radioactivity ingress. The design implemented for SNO+ uses a set of optical fibres to inject light pulses from external LEDs into the detector. The design, fabrication and installation of this light injection system, as well as the first commissioning tests, are described in this paper. Monte Carlo simulations were compared with the commissioning test results, confirming that the system meets the performance requirements.
△ Less
Submitted 16 January, 2015; v1 submitted 18 November, 2014;
originally announced November 2014.
-
The EXO-200 detector, part I: Detector design and construction
Authors:
M. Auger,
D. J. Auty,
P. S. Barbeau,
L. Bartoszek,
E. Baussan,
E. Beauchamp,
C. Benitez-Medina,
M. Breidenbach,
D. Chauhan,
B. Cleveland,
R. Conley,
J. Cook,
S. Cook,
A. Coppens,
W. Craddock,
T. Daniels,
C. G. Davis,
J. Davis,
R. deVoe,
A. Dobi,
M. J. Dolinski,
M. Dunford,
W. Fairbank Jr,
J. Farine,
P. Fierlinger
, et al. (56 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
EXO-200 is an experiment designed to search for double beta decay of $^{136}$Xe with a single-phase, liquid xenon detector. It uses an active mass of 110 kg of xenon enriched to 80.6% in the isotope 136 in an ultra-low background time projection chamber capable of simultaneous detection of ionization and scintillation. This paper describes the EXO-200 detector with particular attention to the most…
▽ More
EXO-200 is an experiment designed to search for double beta decay of $^{136}$Xe with a single-phase, liquid xenon detector. It uses an active mass of 110 kg of xenon enriched to 80.6% in the isotope 136 in an ultra-low background time projection chamber capable of simultaneous detection of ionization and scintillation. This paper describes the EXO-200 detector with particular attention to the most innovative aspects of the design that revolve around the reduction of backgrounds, the efficient use of the expensive isotopically enriched xenon, and the optimization of the energy resolution in a relatively large volume.
△ Less
Submitted 23 May, 2012; v1 submitted 10 February, 2012;
originally announced February 2012.