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Enhancing Neutrinoless Double-Beta Decay Sensitivity of Liquid-Xenon Time Projection Chamber with Augmented Convolutional Neural Network
Authors:
E. Aprile,
J. Aalbers,
K. Abe,
M. Adrover,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
D. Antón Martin,
S. R. Armbruster,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
M. Bazyk,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
K. Boese,
R. M. Braun,
G. Bruni,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
C. Cai,
C. Capelli,
J. M. R. Cardoso,
A. P. Cimental Chávez
, et al. (151 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
Dual-phase time projection chamber (TPC) that employs a multi-ton-scale liquid xenon (LXe) target mass is a pioneering detector technology to search for dark matter. Beyond its advantage in dark matter direct detection efforts, the natural xenon target allows it to search for the neutrinoless double-beta decay ($0νββ$) process, which would violate lepton number conservation and indicate that neutr…
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Dual-phase time projection chamber (TPC) that employs a multi-ton-scale liquid xenon (LXe) target mass is a pioneering detector technology to search for dark matter. Beyond its advantage in dark matter direct detection efforts, the natural xenon target allows it to search for the neutrinoless double-beta decay ($0νββ$) process, which would violate lepton number conservation and indicate that neutrinos are Majorana particles. However, such $0νββ$ searches have been limited by gamma-ray backgrounds originating from the detector materials. In this work, we designed an augmented convolutional neural network (A-CNN) model to extract additional event-topology information from detector data. Using simulation and calibration data from XENONnT, a leading LXe TPC experiment, our model achieved over 60% background rejection while maintaining 90% signal acceptance. This rejection power improves XENONnT's projected sensitivity of the $^{136}$Xe $0νββ$ search by about 40%. The implementation of A-CNN in the data analysis of future liquid xenon observatories, such as XLZD, will further enhance their sensitivities for $0νββ$ with $^{136}$Xe.
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Submitted 20 March, 2026;
originally announced March 2026.
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Light Dark Matter Search with 7.8 Tonne-Year of Ionization-Only Data in XENONnT
Authors:
E. Aprile,
J. Aalbers,
K. Abe,
M. Adrover,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
D. Antón Martin,
S. R. Armbruster,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
M. Bazyk,
V. Beligotti,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
K. Boese,
R. M. Braun,
G. Bruni,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
C. Cai,
C. Capelli,
J. M. R. Cardoso
, et al. (152 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
We report on a blinded search for dark matter (DM) using ionization-only (S2-only) signals in XENONnT with a total exposure of $7.83\mathrm{tonne}\times\mathrm{year}$ over 579 days in three science runs. Dedicated background suppression techniques and the first complete S2-only background model in XENONnT provide sensitivity to nuclear recoils of [0.5, 5.0] $\mathrm{keV_\mathrm{nr}}$ and electroni…
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We report on a blinded search for dark matter (DM) using ionization-only (S2-only) signals in XENONnT with a total exposure of $7.83\mathrm{tonne}\times\mathrm{year}$ over 579 days in three science runs. Dedicated background suppression techniques and the first complete S2-only background model in XENONnT provide sensitivity to nuclear recoils of [0.5, 5.0] $\mathrm{keV_\mathrm{nr}}$ and electronic recoils of [0.04, 0.7] $\mathrm{keV_\mathrm{ee}}$. No significant excess over the expected background is observed, and we set 90\% confidence level upper limits on spin-independent DM--nucleon and spin-dependent DM--neutron scattering for DM masses between 3 and 8 $\mathrm{GeV}/c^2$, as well as on DM--electron scattering, axion-like particles, and dark photons, improving on previous constraints. For spin-independent DM--nucleon scattering, we exclude cross sections above $6.0\times10^{-45} $cm$^2$ at a DM mass of 5 $\mathrm{GeV}/c^2$, pushing the XENONnT sensitivity closer to the region where coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering ($\text{CE}ν\text{NS}$) becomes an irreducible background.
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Submitted 30 July, 2026; v1 submitted 16 January, 2026;
originally announced January 2026.
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Setting limits on blazar-boosted dark matter with xenon-based detectors
Authors:
Erin Barillier,
Laura Manenti,
Knut Mora,
Paolo Padovani,
Isaac Sarnoff,
Yongheng Xu,
Bjorn Penning,
Francesco Arneodo
Abstract:
Dual-phase xenon time projection chambers achieve optimal sensitivity for dark matter in the 10 to 1000 GeV/c$^2$ mass range, but sub-GeV dark matter particles lack sufficient energy to produce nuclear recoils above detection thresholds in these detectors. Blazar-boosted dark matter offers a way to overcome this limitation. Relativistic jets in active galactic nuclei can accelerate light dark matt…
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Dual-phase xenon time projection chambers achieve optimal sensitivity for dark matter in the 10 to 1000 GeV/c$^2$ mass range, but sub-GeV dark matter particles lack sufficient energy to produce nuclear recoils above detection thresholds in these detectors. Blazar-boosted dark matter offers a way to overcome this limitation. Relativistic jets in active galactic nuclei can accelerate light dark matter in their host-galaxy halos to energies that can leave detectable nuclear recoil signals in xenon-based detectors on Earth. We present the first blazar-boosted dark matter search that incorporates detector response modeling, using public data from XENON1T and LZ for the blazar TXS 0506+056. We model dark matter-proton scattering in the jet environment, covering the full process from jet acceleration through to detector response, and we explore how the host-galaxy dark matter density profile impacts the analysis. We set model-dependent exclusion regions on the dark-matter-nucleon scattering cross section for m$_χ$ approximately 1 MeV dark matter, between 5.8$\times 10^{-31}$ cm$^2$ and 6.3$\times 10^{-29}$cm$^2$ using XENON1T data, and between 9.9$\times 10^{-32}$ cm$^2$ and 2.5$\times 10^{-28}$ cm$^2$ from LZ effective field theory (EFT) dark matter searches. Our results show that astrophysical uncertainties, especially those in the dark-matter distribution near the supermassive black hole, are the main limitation of this search rather than detector effects. The limits are therefore model-dependent and should be seen as exploratory, highlighting both the potential and the present uncertainties of blazar-boosted dark matter as a probe of light dark matter.
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Submitted 1 January, 2026; v1 submitted 8 September, 2025;
originally announced September 2025.
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WIMP Dark Matter Search using a 3.1 Tonne-Year Exposure of the XENONnT Experiment
Authors:
E. Aprile,
J. Aalbers,
K. Abe,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
D. Antón Martin,
S. R. Armbruster,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
M. Bazyk,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
K. Boese,
A. Brown,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
C. Cai,
C. Capelli,
J. M. R. Cardoso,
A. P. Cimental Chávez,
A. P. Colijn,
J. Conrad
, et al. (153 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
We report on a search for weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP) dark matter (DM) via elastic DM-xenon-nucleus interactions in the XENONnT experiment. We combine datasets from the first and second science campaigns resulting in a total exposure of 3.1 tonne-years. In a blind analysis of nuclear recoil events with energies above $3.8\,\mathrm{keV_{NR}}$, we find no significant excess above back…
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We report on a search for weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP) dark matter (DM) via elastic DM-xenon-nucleus interactions in the XENONnT experiment. We combine datasets from the first and second science campaigns resulting in a total exposure of 3.1 tonne-years. In a blind analysis of nuclear recoil events with energies above $3.8\,\mathrm{keV_{NR}}$, we find no significant excess above background. We set new upper limits on the spin-independent WIMP-nucleon scattering cross section for WIMP masses above $10\,\mathrm{GeV}/c^2$ with a minimum of $1.7\,\times\,10^{-47}\,\mathrm{cm^2}$ at $90\,\%$ confidence level for a WIMP mass of $30\,\mathrm{GeV}/c^2$. We achieve a best median sensitivity of $1.4\,\times\,10^{-47}\,\mathrm{cm^2}$ for a $41\,\mathrm{GeV}/c^2$ WIMP. Compared to the result from the first XENONnT science dataset, we improve our sensitivity by a factor of up to 1.8.
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Submitted 16 December, 2025; v1 submitted 25 February, 2025;
originally announced February 2025.
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Radon Removal in XENONnT down to the Solar Neutrino Level
Authors:
E. Aprile,
J. Aalbers,
K. Abe,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
D. Antón Martin,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
M. Bazyk,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
K. Boese,
A. Brown,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
C. Cai,
C. Capelli,
J. M. R. Cardoso,
A. P. Cimental Chávez,
A. P. Colijn,
J. Conrad,
J. J. Cuenca-García
, et al. (147 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The XENONnT experiment has achieved an exceptionally low $^\text{222}$Rn activity concentration within its inner 5.9$\,$tonne liquid xenon detector of (0.90$\,\pm\,$0.01$\,$stat.$\,\pm\,$0.07 sys.)$\,μ$Bq/kg, equivalent to about 430 $^\text{222}$Rn atoms per tonne of xenon. This was achieved by active online radon removal via cryogenic distillation after stringent material selection. The achieved…
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The XENONnT experiment has achieved an exceptionally low $^\text{222}$Rn activity concentration within its inner 5.9$\,$tonne liquid xenon detector of (0.90$\,\pm\,$0.01$\,$stat.$\,\pm\,$0.07 sys.)$\,μ$Bq/kg, equivalent to about 430 $^\text{222}$Rn atoms per tonne of xenon. This was achieved by active online radon removal via cryogenic distillation after stringent material selection. The achieved $^\text{222}$Rn activity concentration is five times lower than that in other currently operational multi-tonne liquid xenon detectors engaged in dark matter searches. This breakthrough enables the pursuit of various rare event searches that lie beyond the confines of the standard model of particle physics, with world-leading sensitivity. The ultra-low $^\text{222}$Rn levels have diminished the radon-induced background rate in the detector to a point where it is for the first time comparable to the solar neutrino-induced background, which is poised to become the primary irreducible background in liquid xenon-based detectors.
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Submitted 25 April, 2025; v1 submitted 6 February, 2025;
originally announced February 2025.
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Low-Energy Nuclear Recoil Calibration of XENONnT with a $^{88}$YBe Photoneutron Source
Authors:
XENON Collaboration,
E. Aprile,
J. Aalbers,
K. Abe,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
D. Antón Martin,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
M. Bazyk,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
K. Boese,
A. Brown,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
C. Cai,
C. Capelli,
J. M. R. Cardoso,
A. P. Cimental Chávez,
A. P. Colijn,
J. Conrad
, et al. (147 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
Characterizing low-energy, keV-range nuclear recoils near the detector threshold is one of the major challenges for large direct dark matter detectors. To that end, we have successfully used a Yttrium-Beryllium photoneutron source that emits 152 keV neutrons for the calibration of the light and charge yields of the XENONnT experiment for the first time. After data selection, we accumulated 474 eve…
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Characterizing low-energy, keV-range nuclear recoils near the detector threshold is one of the major challenges for large direct dark matter detectors. To that end, we have successfully used a Yttrium-Beryllium photoneutron source that emits 152 keV neutrons for the calibration of the light and charge yields of the XENONnT experiment for the first time. After data selection, we accumulated 474 events from 183 hours of exposure with this source. The expected background was $55 \pm 12$ accidental coincidence events, estimated using a dedicated 152 hour background calibration run with a Yttrium-PVC gamma-only source and data-driven modeling. From these calibrations, we extracted the light (charge) yield for liquid xenon at our field strength of 23 V/cm between 0.3 (0.7) keV$_{\rm NR}$ and 5.0 keV$_{\rm NR}$. This calibration is crucial for accurately measuring the solar $^8$B neutrino coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering and searching for light dark matter particles with masses below 12 GeV/c$^2$.
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Submitted 30 April, 2026; v1 submitted 11 December, 2024;
originally announced December 2024.
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The neutron veto of the XENONnT experiment: Results with demineralized water
Authors:
XENON Collaboration,
E. Aprile,
J. Aalbers,
K. Abe,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
D. Antón Martin,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
M. Bazyk,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
K. Boese,
A. Brown,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
C. Cai,
C. Capelli,
J. M. R. Cardoso,
A. P. Cimental Chávez,
A. P. Colijn,
J. Conrad
, et al. (145 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
Radiogenic neutrons emitted by detector materials are one of the most challenging backgrounds for the direct search of dark matter in the form of weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs). To mitigate this background, the XENONnT experiment is equipped with a novel gadolinium-doped water Cherenkov detector, which encloses the xenon dual-phase time projection chamber (TPC). The neutron veto (NV)…
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Radiogenic neutrons emitted by detector materials are one of the most challenging backgrounds for the direct search of dark matter in the form of weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs). To mitigate this background, the XENONnT experiment is equipped with a novel gadolinium-doped water Cherenkov detector, which encloses the xenon dual-phase time projection chamber (TPC). The neutron veto (NV) tags neutrons via their capture on gadolinium or hydrogen, which release $γ$-rays that are subsequently detected as Cherenkov light. In this work, we present the key features and the first results of the XENONnT NV when operated with demineralized water in the initial phase of the experiment. Its efficiency for detecting neutrons is $(82\pm 1)\,\%$, the highest neutron detection efficiency achieved in a water Cherenkov detector. This enables a high efficiency of $(53\pm 3)\,\%$ for the tagging of WIMP-like neutron signals, inside a tagging time window of $250\,\mathrm{μs}$ between TPC and NV, leading to a livetime loss of $1.6\,\%$ during the first science run of XENONnT.
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Submitted 18 December, 2024; v1 submitted 6 December, 2024;
originally announced December 2024.
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XENONnT Analysis: Signal Reconstruction, Calibration and Event Selection
Authors:
XENON Collaboration,
E. Aprile,
J. Aalbers,
K. Abe,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
J. R. Angevaare,
D. Antón Martin,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
M. Bazyk,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
K. Boese,
A. Brown,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
J. M. R. Cardoso,
A. P. Cimental Chávez,
A. P. Colijn,
J. Conrad,
J. J. Cuenca-García
, et al. (143 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The XENONnT experiment, located at the INFN Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso, Italy, features a 5.9 tonne liquid xenon time projection chamber surrounded by an instrumented neutron veto, all of which is housed within a muon veto water tank. Due to extensive shielding and advanced purification to mitigate natural radioactivity, an exceptionally low background level of (15.8 $\pm$ 1.3) events/(to…
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The XENONnT experiment, located at the INFN Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso, Italy, features a 5.9 tonne liquid xenon time projection chamber surrounded by an instrumented neutron veto, all of which is housed within a muon veto water tank. Due to extensive shielding and advanced purification to mitigate natural radioactivity, an exceptionally low background level of (15.8 $\pm$ 1.3) events/(tonne$\cdot$year$\cdot$keV) in the (1, 30) keV region is reached in the inner part of the TPC. XENONnT is thus sensitive to a wide range of rare phenomena related to Dark Matter and Neutrino interactions, both within and beyond the Standard Model of particle physics, with a focus on the direct detection of Dark Matter in the form of weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs). From May 2021 to December 2021, XENONnT accumulated data in rare-event search mode with a total exposure of one tonne $\cdot$ year. This paper provides a detailed description of the signal reconstruction methods, event selection procedure, and detector response calibration, as well as an overview of the detector performance in this time frame. This work establishes the foundational framework for the `blind analysis' methodology we are using when reporting XENONnT physics results.
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Submitted 13 September, 2024;
originally announced September 2024.
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First Indication of Solar $^8$B Neutrinos via Coherent Elastic Neutrino-Nucleus Scattering with XENONnT
Authors:
E. Aprile,
J. Aalbers,
K. Abe,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
D. Antón Martin,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
M. Bazyk,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
K. Boese,
A. Brown,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
C. Cai,
C. Capelli,
J. M. R. Cardoso,
A. P. Cimental Chávez,
A. P. Colijn,
J. Conrad,
J. J. Cuenca-García
, et al. (142 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
We present the first measurement of nuclear recoils from solar $^8$B neutrinos via coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering with the XENONnT dark matter experiment. The central detector of XENONnT is a low-background, two-phase time projection chamber with a 5.9 t sensitive liquid xenon target. A blind analysis with an exposure of 3.51 t$\times$yr resulted in 37 observed events above 0.5 keV,…
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We present the first measurement of nuclear recoils from solar $^8$B neutrinos via coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering with the XENONnT dark matter experiment. The central detector of XENONnT is a low-background, two-phase time projection chamber with a 5.9 t sensitive liquid xenon target. A blind analysis with an exposure of 3.51 t$\times$yr resulted in 37 observed events above 0.5 keV, with ($26.4^{+1.4}_{-1.3}$) events expected from backgrounds. The background-only hypothesis is rejected with a statistical significance of 2.73 $σ$. The measured $^8$B solar neutrino flux of $(4.7_{-2.3}^{+3.6})\times 10^6 \mathrm{cm}^{-2}\mathrm{s}^{-1}$ is consistent with results from the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory. The measured neutrino flux-weighted CE$ν$NS cross section on Xe of $(1.1^{+0.8}_{-0.5})\times10^{-39} \mathrm{cm}^2$ is consistent with the Standard Model prediction. This is the first direct measurement of nuclear recoils from solar neutrinos with a dark matter detector.
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Submitted 23 November, 2024; v1 submitted 5 August, 2024;
originally announced August 2024.
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XENONnT WIMP Search: Signal & Background Modeling and Statistical Inference
Authors:
XENON Collaboration,
E. Aprile,
J. Aalbers,
K. Abe,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
D. Antón Martin,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
M. Bazyk,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
K. Boese,
A. Brown,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
J. M. R. Cardoso,
A. P. Cimental Chávez,
A. P. Colijn,
J. Conrad,
J. J. Cuenca-García,
V. D'Andrea
, et al. (139 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The XENONnT experiment searches for weakly-interacting massive particle (WIMP) dark matter scattering off a xenon nucleus. In particular, XENONnT uses a dual-phase time projection chamber with a 5.9-tonne liquid xenon target, detecting both scintillation and ionization signals to reconstruct the energy, position, and type of recoil. A blind search for nuclear recoil WIMPs with an exposure of 1.1 t…
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The XENONnT experiment searches for weakly-interacting massive particle (WIMP) dark matter scattering off a xenon nucleus. In particular, XENONnT uses a dual-phase time projection chamber with a 5.9-tonne liquid xenon target, detecting both scintillation and ionization signals to reconstruct the energy, position, and type of recoil. A blind search for nuclear recoil WIMPs with an exposure of 1.1 tonne-years (4.18 t fiducial mass) yielded no signal excess over background expectations, from which competitive exclusion limits were derived on WIMP-nucleon elastic scatter cross sections, for WIMP masses ranging from 6 GeV/$c^2$ up to the TeV/$c^2$ scale. This work details the modeling and statistical methods employed in this search. By means of calibration data, we model the detector response, which is then used to derive background and signal models. The construction and validation of these models is discussed, alongside additional purely data-driven backgrounds. We also describe the statistical inference framework, including the definition of the likelihood function and the construction of confidence intervals.
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Submitted 3 June, 2025; v1 submitted 19 June, 2024;
originally announced June 2024.
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Offline tagging of radon-induced backgrounds in XENON1T and applicability to other liquid xenon detectors
Authors:
E. Aprile,
J. Aalbers,
K. Abe,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
J. R. Angevaare,
D. Antón Martin,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
A. L. Baxter,
M. Bazyk,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
E. J. Brookes,
A. Brown,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
T. K. Bui,
J. M. R. Cardoso,
A. P. Cimental Chavez,
A. P. Colijn,
J. Conrad
, et al. (142 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
This paper details the first application of a software tagging algorithm to reduce radon-induced backgrounds in liquid noble element time projection chambers, such as XENON1T and XENONnT. The convection velocity field in XENON1T was mapped out using $^{222}\text{Rn}$ and $^{218}\text{Po}$ events, and the root-mean-square convection speed was measured to be $0.30 \pm 0.01$ cm/s. Given this velocity…
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This paper details the first application of a software tagging algorithm to reduce radon-induced backgrounds in liquid noble element time projection chambers, such as XENON1T and XENONnT. The convection velocity field in XENON1T was mapped out using $^{222}\text{Rn}$ and $^{218}\text{Po}$ events, and the root-mean-square convection speed was measured to be $0.30 \pm 0.01$ cm/s. Given this velocity field, $^{214}\text{Pb}$ background events can be tagged when they are followed by $^{214}\text{Bi}$ and $^{214}\text{Po}$ decays, or preceded by $^{218}\text{Po}$ decays. This was achieved by evolving a point cloud in the direction of a measured convection velocity field, and searching for $^{214}\text{Bi}$ and $^{214}\text{Po}$ decays or $^{218}\text{Po}$ decays within a volume defined by the point cloud. In XENON1T, this tagging system achieved a $^{214}\text{Pb}$ background reduction of $6.2^{+0.4}_{-0.9}\%$ with an exposure loss of $1.8\pm 0.2 \%$, despite the timescales of convection being smaller than the relevant decay times. We show that the performance can be improved in XENONnT, and that the performance of such a software-tagging approach can be expected to be further improved in a diffusion-limited scenario. Finally, a similar method might be useful to tag the cosmogenic $^{137}\text{Xe}$ background, which is relevant to the search for neutrinoless double-beta decay.
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Submitted 19 June, 2024; v1 submitted 21 March, 2024;
originally announced March 2024.
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The XENONnT Dark Matter Experiment
Authors:
XENON Collaboration,
E. Aprile,
J. Aalbers,
K. Abe,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
J. R. Angevaare,
V. C. Antochi,
D. Antón Martin,
F. Arneodo,
M. Balata,
L. Baudis,
A. L. Baxter,
M. Bazyk,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
E. J. Brookes,
A. Brown,
S. Bruenner,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
T. K. Bui
, et al. (170 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The multi-staged XENON program at INFN Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso aims to detect dark matter with two-phase liquid xenon time projection chambers of increasing size and sensitivity. The XENONnT experiment is the latest detector in the program, planned to be an upgrade of its predecessor XENON1T. It features an active target of 5.9 tonnes of cryogenic liquid xenon (8.5 tonnes total mass in…
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The multi-staged XENON program at INFN Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso aims to detect dark matter with two-phase liquid xenon time projection chambers of increasing size and sensitivity. The XENONnT experiment is the latest detector in the program, planned to be an upgrade of its predecessor XENON1T. It features an active target of 5.9 tonnes of cryogenic liquid xenon (8.5 tonnes total mass in cryostat). The experiment is expected to extend the sensitivity to WIMP dark matter by more than an order of magnitude compared to XENON1T, thanks to the larger active mass and the significantly reduced background, improved by novel systems such as a radon removal plant and a neutron veto. This article describes the XENONnT experiment and its sub-systems in detail and reports on the detector performance during the first science run.
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Submitted 13 August, 2025; v1 submitted 15 February, 2024;
originally announced February 2024.
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Dark counts in optical superconducting transition-edge sensors for rare-event searches
Authors:
Laura Manenti,
Carlo Pepe,
Isaac Sarnoff,
Tengiz Ibrayev,
Panagiotis Oikonomou,
Artem Knyazev,
Eugenio Monticone,
Hobey Garrone,
Fiona Alder,
Osama Fawwaz,
Alexander J. Millar,
Knut Dundas Morå,
Hamad Shams,
Francesco Arneodo,
Mauro Rajteri
Abstract:
Superconducting transition-edge sensors (TESs) are a type of quantum sensor known for its high single-photon detection efficiency and low background. This makes them ideal for particle physics experiments searching for rare events. In this work, we present a comprehensive characterization of the background in optical TESs, distinguishing three types of events: electrical-noise, high-energy, and ph…
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Superconducting transition-edge sensors (TESs) are a type of quantum sensor known for its high single-photon detection efficiency and low background. This makes them ideal for particle physics experiments searching for rare events. In this work, we present a comprehensive characterization of the background in optical TESs, distinguishing three types of events: electrical-noise, high-energy, and photonlike events. We introduce computational methods to automate the classification of events. For the first time, we experimentally verify and simulate the source of the high-energy events. We also isolate the photonlike events, the expected signal in dielectric haloscopes searching for dark matter dark photons, and achieve a record-low photonlike dark-count rate of $3.6 \times 10^{-4}$ Hz in the 0.8-3.2 eV energy range.
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Submitted 20 September, 2025; v1 submitted 5 February, 2024;
originally announced February 2024.
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Design and performance of the field cage for the XENONnT experiment
Authors:
E. Aprile,
K. Abe,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
J. R. Angevaare,
V. C. Antochi,
D. Antón Martin,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
A. L. Baxter,
M. Bazyk,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
E. J. Brookes,
A. Brown,
S. Bruenner,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
T. K. Bui,
C. Cai,
J. M. R. Cardoso,
D. Cichon
, et al. (139 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The precision in reconstructing events detected in a dual-phase time projection chamber depends on an homogeneous and well understood electric field within the liquid target. In the XENONnT TPC the field homogeneity is achieved through a double-array field cage, consisting of two nested arrays of field shaping rings connected by an easily accessible resistor chain. Rather than being connected to t…
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The precision in reconstructing events detected in a dual-phase time projection chamber depends on an homogeneous and well understood electric field within the liquid target. In the XENONnT TPC the field homogeneity is achieved through a double-array field cage, consisting of two nested arrays of field shaping rings connected by an easily accessible resistor chain. Rather than being connected to the gate electrode, the topmost field shaping ring is independently biased, adding a degree of freedom to tune the electric field during operation. Two-dimensional finite element simulations were used to optimize the field cage, as well as its operation. Simulation results were compared to ${}^{83m}\mathrm{Kr}$ calibration data. This comparison indicates an accumulation of charge on the panels of the TPC which is constant over time, as no evolution of the reconstructed position distribution of events is observed. The simulated electric field was then used to correct the charge signal for the field dependence of the charge yield. This correction resolves the inconsistent measurement of the drift electron lifetime when using different calibrations sources and different field cage tuning voltages.
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Submitted 21 September, 2023;
originally announced September 2023.
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Search for events in XENON1T associated with Gravitational Waves
Authors:
XENON Collaboration,
E. Aprile,
K. Abe,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
J. R. Angevaare,
V. C. Antochi,
D. Antoń Martin,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
A. L. Baxter,
M. Bazyk,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
E. J. Brookes,
A. Brown,
S. Bruenner,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
T. K. Bui,
C. Cai,
J. M. R. Cardoso
, et al. (138 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
We perform a blind search for particle signals in the XENON1T dark matter detector that occur close in time to gravitational wave signals in the LIGO and Virgo observatories. No particle signal is observed in the nuclear recoil, electronic recoil, CE$ν$NS, and S2-only channels within $\pm$ 500 seconds of observations of the gravitational wave signals GW170104, GW170729, GW170817, GW170818, and GW1…
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We perform a blind search for particle signals in the XENON1T dark matter detector that occur close in time to gravitational wave signals in the LIGO and Virgo observatories. No particle signal is observed in the nuclear recoil, electronic recoil, CE$ν$NS, and S2-only channels within $\pm$ 500 seconds of observations of the gravitational wave signals GW170104, GW170729, GW170817, GW170818, and GW170823. We use this null result to constrain mono-energetic neutrinos and Beyond Standard Model particles emitted in the closest coalescence GW170817, a binary neutron star merger. We set new upper limits on the fluence (time-integrated flux) of coincident neutrinos down to 17 keV at 90% confidence level. Furthermore, we constrain the product of coincident fluence and cross section of Beyond Standard Model particles to be less than $10^{-29}$ cm$^2$/cm$^2$ in the [5.5-210] keV energy range at 90% confidence level.
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Submitted 27 October, 2023; v1 submitted 20 June, 2023;
originally announced June 2023.
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Searching for Heavy Dark Matter near the Planck Mass with XENON1T
Authors:
E. Aprile,
K. Abe,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
J. R. Angevaare,
V. C. Antochi,
D. Antón Martin,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
A. L. Baxter,
M. Bazyk,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
E. J. Brookes,
A. Brown,
S. Bruenner,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
T. K. Bui,
C. Cai,
J. M. R. Cardoso,
D. Cichon
, et al. (142 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
Multiple viable theoretical models predict heavy dark matter particles with a mass close to the Planck mass, a range relatively unexplored by current experimental measurements. We use 219.4 days of data collected with the XENON1T experiment to conduct a blind search for signals from Multiply-Interacting Massive Particles (MIMPs). Their unique track signature allows a targeted analysis with only 0.…
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Multiple viable theoretical models predict heavy dark matter particles with a mass close to the Planck mass, a range relatively unexplored by current experimental measurements. We use 219.4 days of data collected with the XENON1T experiment to conduct a blind search for signals from Multiply-Interacting Massive Particles (MIMPs). Their unique track signature allows a targeted analysis with only 0.05 expected background events from muons. Following unblinding, we observe no signal candidate events. This work places strong constraints on spin-independent interactions of dark matter particles with a mass between 1$\times$10$^{12}\,$GeV/c$^2$ and 2$\times$10$^{17}\,$GeV/c$^2$. In addition, we present the first exclusion limits on spin-dependent MIMP-neutron and MIMP-proton cross-sections for dark matter particles with masses close to the Planck scale.
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Submitted 21 April, 2023;
originally announced April 2023.
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First Dark Matter Search with Nuclear Recoils from the XENONnT Experiment
Authors:
XENON Collaboration,
E. Aprile,
K. Abe,
F. Agostini,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
J. R. Angevaare,
V. C. Antochi,
D. Antón Martin,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
A. L. Baxter,
M. Bazyk,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
E. J. Brookes,
A. Brown,
S. Bruenner,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
T. K. Bui,
C. Cai
, et al. (141 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
We report on the first search for nuclear recoils from dark matter in the form of weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) with the XENONnT experiment which is based on a two-phase time projection chamber with a sensitive liquid xenon mass of $5.9$ t. During the approximately 1.1 tonne-year exposure used for this search, the intrinsic $^{85}$Kr and $^{222}$Rn concentrations in the liquid targe…
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We report on the first search for nuclear recoils from dark matter in the form of weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) with the XENONnT experiment which is based on a two-phase time projection chamber with a sensitive liquid xenon mass of $5.9$ t. During the approximately 1.1 tonne-year exposure used for this search, the intrinsic $^{85}$Kr and $^{222}$Rn concentrations in the liquid target were reduced to unprecedentedly low levels, giving an electronic recoil background rate of $(15.8\pm1.3)~\mathrm{events}/(\mathrm{t\cdot y \cdot keV})$ in the region of interest. A blind analysis of nuclear recoil events with energies between $3.3$ keV and $60.5$ keV finds no significant excess. This leads to a minimum upper limit on the spin-independent WIMP-nucleon cross section of $2.58\times 10^{-47}~\mathrm{cm}^2$ for a WIMP mass of $28~\mathrm{GeV}/c^2$ at $90\%$ confidence level. Limits for spin-dependent interactions are also provided. Both the limit and the sensitivity for the full range of WIMP masses analyzed here improve on previous results obtained with the XENON1T experiment for the same exposure.
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Submitted 5 August, 2023; v1 submitted 26 March, 2023;
originally announced March 2023.
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The Triggerless Data Acquisition System of the XENONnT Experiment
Authors:
E. Aprile,
J. Aalbers,
K. Abe,
F. Agostini,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
J. R. Angevaare,
V. C. Antochi,
D. Antón Martin,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
A. L. Baxter,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
E. J. Brookes,
A. Brown,
S. Bruenner,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
T. K. Bui,
C. Cai,
J. M. R. Cardoso
, et al. (140 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The XENONnT detector uses the latest and largest liquid xenon-based time projection chamber (TPC) operated by the XENON Collaboration, aimed at detecting Weakly Interacting Massive Particles and conducting other rare event searches. The XENONnT data acquisition (DAQ) system constitutes an upgraded and expanded version of the XENON1T DAQ system. For its operation, it relies predominantly on commerc…
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The XENONnT detector uses the latest and largest liquid xenon-based time projection chamber (TPC) operated by the XENON Collaboration, aimed at detecting Weakly Interacting Massive Particles and conducting other rare event searches. The XENONnT data acquisition (DAQ) system constitutes an upgraded and expanded version of the XENON1T DAQ system. For its operation, it relies predominantly on commercially available hardware accompanied by open-source and custom-developed software. The three constituent subsystems of the XENONnT detector, the TPC (main detector), muon veto, and the newly introduced neutron veto, are integrated into a single DAQ, and can be operated both independently and as a unified system. In total, the DAQ digitizes the signals of 698 photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), of which 253 from the top PMT array of the TPC are digitized twice, at $\times10$ and $\times0.5$ gain. The DAQ for the most part is a triggerless system, reading out and storing every signal that exceeds the digitization thresholds. Custom-developed software is used to process the acquired data, making it available within $\mathcal{O}\left(10\text{ s}\right)$ for live data quality monitoring and online analyses. The entire system with all the three subsystems was successfully commissioned and has been operating continuously, comfortably withstanding readout rates that exceed $\sim500$ MB/s during calibration. Livetime during normal operation exceeds $99\%$ and is $\sim90\%$ during most high-rate calibrations. The combined DAQ system has collected more than 2 PB of both calibration and science data during the commissioning of XENONnT and the first science run.
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Submitted 21 December, 2022;
originally announced December 2022.
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Low-energy Calibration of XENON1T with an Internal $^{37}$Ar Source
Authors:
E. Aprile,
K. Abe,
F. Agostini,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
M. Alfonsi,
L. Althueser,
B. Andrieu,
E. Angelino,
J. R. Angevaare,
V. C. Antochi,
D. Antón Martin,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
A. L. Baxter,
L. Bellagamba,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
A. Brown,
S. Bruenner,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
T. K. Bui,
C. Cai,
C. Capelli,
J. M. R. Cardoso
, et al. (139 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
A low-energy electronic recoil calibration of XENON1T, a dual-phase xenon time projection chamber, with an internal $^{37}$Ar source was performed. This calibration source features a 35-day half-life and provides two mono-energetic lines at 2.82 keV and 0.27 keV. The photon yield and electron yield at 2.82 keV are measured to be (32.3$\pm$0.3) photons/keV and (40.6$\pm$0.5) electrons/keV, respecti…
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A low-energy electronic recoil calibration of XENON1T, a dual-phase xenon time projection chamber, with an internal $^{37}$Ar source was performed. This calibration source features a 35-day half-life and provides two mono-energetic lines at 2.82 keV and 0.27 keV. The photon yield and electron yield at 2.82 keV are measured to be (32.3$\pm$0.3) photons/keV and (40.6$\pm$0.5) electrons/keV, respectively, in agreement with other measurements and with NEST predictions. The electron yield at 0.27 keV is also measured and it is (68.0$^{+6.3}_{-3.7}$) electrons/keV. The $^{37}$Ar calibration confirms that the detector is well-understood in the energy region close to the detection threshold, with the 2.82 keV line reconstructed at (2.83$\pm$0.02) keV, which further validates the model used to interpret the low-energy electronic recoil excess previously reported by XENON1T. The ability to efficiently remove argon with cryogenic distillation after the calibration proves that $^{37}$Ar can be considered as a regular calibration source for multi-tonne xenon detectors.
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Submitted 21 March, 2023; v1 submitted 25 November, 2022;
originally announced November 2022.
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Acoustic detection potential of single minimum ionizing particles in viscous liquids
Authors:
Panagiotis Oikonomou,
Laura Manenti,
Isaac Sarnoff,
Francesco Arneodo
Abstract:
An ionizing particle passing through a liquid generates acoustic signals via local heat deposition. We delve into modeling such acoustic signals in the case of a single particle that interacts with the liquid electromagnetically in a generic way. We present a systematic way of introducing corrections due to viscosity using a perturbative approach so that our solution is valid at large distances fr…
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An ionizing particle passing through a liquid generates acoustic signals via local heat deposition. We delve into modeling such acoustic signals in the case of a single particle that interacts with the liquid electromagnetically in a generic way. We present a systematic way of introducing corrections due to viscosity using a perturbative approach so that our solution is valid at large distances from the interaction point. A computational simulation framework to perform the calculations described is also provided. The methodology developed is then applied to predict the acoustic signal of relativistic muons in various liquids as a toy model.
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Submitted 29 August, 2022; v1 submitted 25 August, 2022;
originally announced August 2022.
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A Next-Generation Liquid Xenon Observatory for Dark Matter and Neutrino Physics
Authors:
J. Aalbers,
K. Abe,
V. Aerne,
F. Agostini,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
D. S. Akerib,
D. Yu. Akimov,
J. Akshat,
A. K. Al Musalhi,
F. Alder,
S. K. Alsum,
L. Althueser,
C. S. Amarasinghe,
F. D. Amaro,
A. Ames,
T. J. Anderson,
B. Andrieu,
N. Angelides,
E. Angelino,
J. Angevaare,
V. C. Antochi,
D. Antón Martin,
B. Antunovic,
E. Aprile,
H. M. Araújo
, et al. (572 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
The nature of dark matter and properties of neutrinos are among the most pressing issues in contemporary particle physics. The dual-phase xenon time-projection chamber is the leading technology to cover the available parameter space for Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs), while featuring extensive sensitivity to many alternative dark matter candidates. These detectors can also study neut…
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The nature of dark matter and properties of neutrinos are among the most pressing issues in contemporary particle physics. The dual-phase xenon time-projection chamber is the leading technology to cover the available parameter space for Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs), while featuring extensive sensitivity to many alternative dark matter candidates. These detectors can also study neutrinos through neutrinoless double-beta decay and through a variety of astrophysical sources. A next-generation xenon-based detector will therefore be a true multi-purpose observatory to significantly advance particle physics, nuclear physics, astrophysics, solar physics, and cosmology. This review article presents the science cases for such a detector.
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Submitted 4 March, 2022;
originally announced March 2022.
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Emission of Single and Few Electrons in XENON1T and Limits on Light Dark Matter
Authors:
E. Aprile,
K. Abe,
F. Agostini,
S. Ahmed Maouloud,
M. Alfonsi,
L. Althueser,
E. Angelino,
J. R. Angevaare,
V. C. Antochi,
D. Antón Martin,
F. Arneodo,
L. Baudis,
A. L. Baxter,
L. Bellagamba,
A. Bernard,
R. Biondi,
A. Bismark,
A. Brown,
S. Bruenner,
G. Bruno,
R. Budnik,
C. Capelli,
J. M. R. Cardoso,
D. Cichon,
B. Cimmino
, et al. (130 additional authors not shown)
Abstract:
Delayed single- and few-electron emissions plague dual-phase time projection chambers, limiting their potential to search for light-mass dark matter. This paper examines the origins of these events in the XENON1T experiment. Characterization of the intensity of delayed electron backgrounds shows that the resulting emissions are correlated, in time and position, with high-energy events and can effe…
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Delayed single- and few-electron emissions plague dual-phase time projection chambers, limiting their potential to search for light-mass dark matter. This paper examines the origins of these events in the XENON1T experiment. Characterization of the intensity of delayed electron backgrounds shows that the resulting emissions are correlated, in time and position, with high-energy events and can effectively be vetoed. In this work we extend previous S2-only analyses down to a single electron. From this analysis, after removing the correlated backgrounds, we observe rates < 30 events/(electron*kg*day) in the region of interest spanning 1 to 5 electrons. We derive 90% confidence upper limits for dark matter-electron scattering, first direct limits on the electric dipole, magnetic dipole, and anapole interactions, and bosonic dark matter models, where we exclude new parameter space for dark photons and solar dark photons.
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Submitted 2 September, 2024; v1 submitted 22 December, 2021;
originally announced December 2021.
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Search for dark photons using a multilayer dielectric haloscope equipped with a single-photon avalanche diode
Authors:
Laura Manenti,
Umang Mishra,
Gianmarco Bruno,
Adriano Di Giovanni,
Alexander John Millar,
Knut Dundas Morå,
Renu Pasricha,
Henry Roberts,
Panos Oikonomou,
Isaac Sarnoff,
James Weston,
Francesco Arneodo
Abstract:
We report on the results of the search for dark photons with mass around 1.5$\,\rm eV/c^2$ using a multilayer dielectric haloscope equipped with an affordable and commercially available photosensor. The multilayer stack, which enables the conversion of dark photons (DP) to Standard Model photons, is made of 23 bilayers of alternating SiO$_2$ and Si$_3$N$_4$ thin films with linearly increasing thic…
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We report on the results of the search for dark photons with mass around 1.5$\,\rm eV/c^2$ using a multilayer dielectric haloscope equipped with an affordable and commercially available photosensor. The multilayer stack, which enables the conversion of dark photons (DP) to Standard Model photons, is made of 23 bilayers of alternating SiO$_2$ and Si$_3$N$_4$ thin films with linearly increasing thicknesses through the stack (a configuration known as a "chirped stack"). The thicknesses have been chosen according to an optimisation algorithm in order to maximise the DP-photon conversion in the energy region where the photosensor sensitivity peaks. This prototype experiment, baptised MuDHI (Multilayer Dielectric Haloscope Investigation) by the authors of this paper, has been designed, developed and run at the Astroparticle Laboratory of New York University Abu Dhabi, which marks the first time a dark matter experiment has been operated in the Middle East. No significant signal excess is observed, and the method of maximum log-likelihood is used to set exclusion limits at $90\%$ confidence level on the kinetic mixing coupling constant between dark photons and ordinary photons.
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Submitted 7 January, 2023; v1 submitted 20 October, 2021;
originally announced October 2021.