Showing 1–18 of 18 results for author: Cox, M A

Intelligent Mode Sorting in Turbulence with Task-Dependent Optical Neural Networks

Authors: Christopher R. Rawlings, Mitchell A. Cox

Abstract: The practical deployment of high-capacity free-space optical communication is fundamentally limited by atmospheric turbulence, a challenge that conventional mode-sorting techniques have failed to overcome. While engineered optical computers like diffractive networks offer a potential solution, their design complexity remains a significant barrier. Here, we introduce and experimentally validate a m… ▽ More The practical deployment of high-capacity free-space optical communication is fundamentally limited by atmospheric turbulence, a challenge that conventional mode-sorting techniques have failed to overcome. While engineered optical computers like diffractive networks offer a potential solution, their design complexity remains a significant barrier. Here, we introduce and experimentally validate a methodology for task-dependent hardware design, demonstrating a simple, continuous-wave-driven multimode fibre reservoir that is physically configured to solve this specific, high-impact problem. We first establish a set of physical design principles, showing that recurrent dynamics are optimal for structural data (MNIST), whereas high mode-mixing is superior for textural data (FMNIST). By treating turbulence-induced wavefront distortion as a complex textural feature, we configure a physically optimised reservoir for classifying orbital angular momentum (OAM) modes. In moderate to high-turbulence regimes, our system outperforms an ideal modal decomposition by an average of 20.32~$\pm$~3.00\%, succeeding precisely where the conventional approach fails. This work not only demonstrates a practical, low-complexity solution for turbulence mitigation but also reframes the optical receiver as a physical likelihood processor, thereby offering a path towards significantly reduced digital signal processing burdens by offloading much of the computational load to the physical optical front-end. We establish a framework for co-designing physical hardware with computation, enabling simpler, more robust optical machine learning systems tailored for real-world challenges. △ Less

Submitted 25 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025.

Neural Network Model for OAM Crosstalk due to Turbulence-Induced Tilt and Lateral Displacement

Authors: Mitchell A. Cox, Steven G. Makoni, Ling Cheng

Abstract: Accurately modelling orbital angular momentum (OAM) mode crosstalk in turbulent environments is challenging yet essential for developing free-space optical systems that employ OAM modes for multiplexing or diversity. Turbulence induces tip/tilt aberrations and lateral displacement, which significantly degrade system performance. Existing analytical models describe the transformation from an input… ▽ More Accurately modelling orbital angular momentum (OAM) mode crosstalk in turbulent environments is challenging yet essential for developing free-space optical systems that employ OAM modes for multiplexing or diversity. Turbulence induces tip/tilt aberrations and lateral displacement, which significantly degrade system performance. Existing analytical models describe the transformation from an input Gaussian mode to an output OAM spectrum; however, our feed forward neural network model generalizes this approach by accounting for the effects of these aberrations on arbitrary input OAM modes. We validate the model experimentally by estimating turbulence-induced tilt and lateral displacement using a dual-camera setup and comparing the estimated spectrum with the actual modal decomposition. With a typical root mean square error of less than 11%, our results indicate that the model could serve as a reliable source of meta-information for digital signal processing, soft-decision forward error correction or perhaps dynamic mode hopping in future systems. △ Less

Submitted 3 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025.

High-Fidelity Prediction of Perturbed Optical Fields using Fourier Feature Networks

Authors: Joshua R. Jandrell, Mitchell A. Cox

Abstract: Predicting the effects of physical perturbations on optical channels is critical for advanced photonic devices, but existing modelling techniques are often computationally intensive or require exhaustive characterisation. We present a novel data-efficient machine learning framework that learns the perturbation-dependent transmission matrix of a multimode fibre. To overcome the challenge of modelli… ▽ More Predicting the effects of physical perturbations on optical channels is critical for advanced photonic devices, but existing modelling techniques are often computationally intensive or require exhaustive characterisation. We present a novel data-efficient machine learning framework that learns the perturbation-dependent transmission matrix of a multimode fibre. To overcome the challenge of modelling the resulting highly oscillatory functions, we encode the perturbation into a Fourier Feature basis, enabling a compact multi-layer perceptron to learn the mapping with high fidelity. On experimental data from a compressed fibre, our model predicts the output field with a 0.995 complex correlation to the ground truth, improving accuracy by an order of magnitude over standard networks while using 85\% fewer parameters. This approach provides a general tool for modelling complex optical systems from sparse measurements. △ Less

Submitted 2 September, 2025; v1 submitted 27 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025.

Hermite-Laguerre-Gaussian Vector Modes

Authors: Edgar Medina-Segura, Leonardo Miranda-Culin, Benjamin Perez-García, Carmelo Rosales-Guzmán, Mitchell A. Cox

Abstract: Vector modes are well-defined field distributions with spatially varying polarisation states, rendering them irreducible to the product of a single spatial mode and a single polarisation state. Traditionally, the spatial degree of freedom of vector modes is constructed using two orthogonal modes from the same family. In this letter, we introduce a novel class of vector modes whose spatial degree o… ▽ More Vector modes are well-defined field distributions with spatially varying polarisation states, rendering them irreducible to the product of a single spatial mode and a single polarisation state. Traditionally, the spatial degree of freedom of vector modes is constructed using two orthogonal modes from the same family. In this letter, we introduce a novel class of vector modes whose spatial degree of freedom is encoded by combining modes from both the Hermite- and Laguerre-Gaussian families. This particular superposition is not arbitrary, and we provide a detailed explanation of the methodology employed to achieve it. Notably, this new class of vector modes, which we term Hybrid Hermite-Laguerre-Gaussian (HHLG) vector modes, gives rise to subsets of modes exhibiting polarisation dependence on propagation due to the difference in mode orders between the constituent Hermite- and Laguerre-Gaussian modes. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of vector modes composed of two scalar modes originating from different families. We anticipate diverse applications for HHLG vector modes in fields such as free-space communications, information encryption, optical metrology, and beyond. △ Less

Submitted 13 May, 2024; originally announced May 2024.

Comments: 4 pages, 5 figures

Event-by-Event Direction Reconstruction of Solar Neutrinos in a High Light-Yield Liquid Scintillator

Authors: A. Allega, M. R. Anderson, S. Andringa, J. Antunes, M. Askins, D. J. Auty, A. Bacon, J. Baker, N. Barros, F. Barão, R. Bayes, E. W. Beier, T. S. Bezerra, A. Bialek, S. D. Biller, E. Blucher, E. Caden, E. J. Callaghan, M. Chen, S. Cheng, B. Cleveland, D. Cookman, J. Corning, M. A. Cox, R. Dehghani , et al. (94 additional authors not shown)

Abstract: The direction of individual $^8$B solar neutrinos has been reconstructed using the SNO+ liquid scintillator detector. Prompt, directional Cherenkov light was separated from the slower, isotropic scintillation light using time information, and a maximum likelihood method was used to reconstruct the direction of individual scattered electrons. A clear directional signal was observed, correlated with… ▽ More The direction of individual $^8$B solar neutrinos has been reconstructed using the SNO+ liquid scintillator detector. Prompt, directional Cherenkov light was separated from the slower, isotropic scintillation light using time information, and a maximum likelihood method was used to reconstruct the direction of individual scattered electrons. A clear directional signal was observed, correlated with the solar angle. The observation was aided by a period of low primary fluor concentration that resulted in a slower scintillator decay time. This is the first time that event-by-event direction reconstruction in high light-yield liquid scintillator has been demonstrated in a large-scale detector. △ Less

Submitted 10 April, 2024; v1 submitted 12 September, 2023; originally announced September 2023.

Comments: 6 pages, 6 figures. Accepted manuscript by PRD

Real-time stokes polarimetry based on a polarisation camera

Authors: Mitchell A. Cox, Carmelo Rosales Guzmán

Abstract: This lab note introduces the "Stokes Camera," a simple and novel experimental arrangement for real-time measurement of spatial amplitude and polarisation and thus spatially resolved Stokes parameters. It uses a polarisation sensitive camera and a fixed quarter-wave plate, providing a one-shot, digital solution for polarisation measurement that is only limited by the frame rate of the camera and th… ▽ More This lab note introduces the "Stokes Camera," a simple and novel experimental arrangement for real-time measurement of spatial amplitude and polarisation and thus spatially resolved Stokes parameters. It uses a polarisation sensitive camera and a fixed quarter-wave plate, providing a one-shot, digital solution for polarisation measurement that is only limited by the frame rate of the camera and the computation speed of the provided code. The note also provides background information on relevant polarisation theory and vector vortex beams, which are used as a demonstration of the device. △ Less

Submitted 29 August, 2023; originally announced August 2023.

Comments: 9 pages, 3 figures

Quantum transport of high-dimensional spatial information with a nonlinear detector

Authors: Bereneice Sephton, Adam Vallés, Isaac Nape, Mitchell A. Cox, Fabian Steinlechner, Thomas Konrad, Juan P. Torres, Filippus S. Roux, Andrew Forbes

Abstract: Information exchange between two distant parties, where information is shared without physically transporting it, is a crucial resource in future quantum networks. Doing so with high-dimensional states offers the promise of higher information capacity and improved resilience to noise, but progress to date has been limited. Here we demonstrate how a nonlinear parametric process allows for arbitrary… ▽ More Information exchange between two distant parties, where information is shared without physically transporting it, is a crucial resource in future quantum networks. Doing so with high-dimensional states offers the promise of higher information capacity and improved resilience to noise, but progress to date has been limited. Here we demonstrate how a nonlinear parametric process allows for arbitrary high-dimensional state projections in the spatial degree of freedom, where a strong coherent field enhances the probability of the process. This allows us to experimentally realise quantum transport of high-dimensional spatial information facilitated by a quantum channel with a single entangled pair and a nonlinear spatial mode detector. Using sum frequency generation we upconvert one of the photons from an entangled pair resulting in high-dimensional spatial information transported to the other. We realise a d=15 quantum channel for arbitrary photonic spatial modes which we demonstrate by faithfully transferring information encoded into orbital angular momentum, Hermite-Gaussian and arbitrary spatial mode superpositions, without requiring knowledge of the state to be sent. Our demonstration merges the nascent fields of nonlinear control of structured light with quantum processes, offering a new approach to harnessing high-dimensional quantum states, and may be extended to other degrees of freedom too. △ Less

Submitted 19 December, 2023; v1 submitted 26 November, 2021; originally announced November 2021.

Comments: 9 pages, 6 figures and SI

Journal ref: Nat. Commun. 14, 8243 (2023)

Optical calibration of the SNO+ detector in the water phase with deployed sources

Authors: SNO+ Collaboration, :, M. R. Anderson, S. Andringa, M. Askins, D. J. Auty, F. Barão, N. Barros, R. Bayes, E. W. Beier, A. Bialek, S. D. Biller, E. Blucher, M. Boulay, E. Caden, E. J. Callaghan, J. Caravaca, M. Chen, O. Chkvorets, B. Cleveland, D. Cookman, J. Corning, M. A. Cox, C. Deluce, M. M. Depatie , et al. (98 additional authors not shown)

Abstract: SNO+ is a large-scale liquid scintillator experiment with the primary goal of searching for neutrinoless double beta decay, and is located approximately 2 km underground in SNOLAB, Sudbury, Canada. The detector acquired data for two years as a pure water Cherenkov detector, starting in May 2017. During this period, the optical properties of the detector were measured in situ using a deployed light… ▽ More SNO+ is a large-scale liquid scintillator experiment with the primary goal of searching for neutrinoless double beta decay, and is located approximately 2 km underground in SNOLAB, Sudbury, Canada. The detector acquired data for two years as a pure water Cherenkov detector, starting in May 2017. During this period, the optical properties of the detector were measured in situ using a deployed light diffusing sphere, with the goal of improving the detector model and the energy response systematic uncertainties. The measured parameters included the water attenuation coefficients, effective attenuation coefficients for the acrylic vessel, and the angular response of the photomultiplier tubes and their surrounding light concentrators, all across different wavelengths. The calibrated detector model was validated using a deployed tagged gamma source, which showed a 0.6% variation in energy scale across the primary target volume. △ Less

Submitted 4 October, 2021; v1 submitted 7 June, 2021; originally announced June 2021.

Comments: Accepted by JINST (30 pages, 19 figures)

Journal ref: JINST 16 (2021) P10021

The SNO+ Experiment

Authors: SNO+ Collaboration, :, V. Albanese, R. Alves, M. R. Anderson, S. Andringa, L. Anselmo, E. Arushanova, S. Asahi, M. Askins, D. J. Auty, A. R. Back, S. Back, F. Barão, Z. Barnard, A. Barr, N. Barros, D. Bartlett, R. Bayes, C. Beaudoin, E. W. Beier, G. Berardi, A. Bialek, S. D. Biller, E. Blucher , et al. (229 additional authors not shown)

Abstract: The SNO+ experiment is located 2 km underground at SNOLAB in Sudbury, Canada. A low background search for neutrinoless double beta ($0νββ$) decay will be conducted using 780 tonnes of liquid scintillator loaded with 3.9 tonnes of natural tellurium, corresponding to 1.3 tonnes of $^{130}$Te. This paper provides a general overview of the SNO+ experiment, including detector design, construction of pr… ▽ More The SNO+ experiment is located 2 km underground at SNOLAB in Sudbury, Canada. A low background search for neutrinoless double beta ($0νββ$) decay will be conducted using 780 tonnes of liquid scintillator loaded with 3.9 tonnes of natural tellurium, corresponding to 1.3 tonnes of $^{130}$Te. This paper provides a general overview of the SNO+ experiment, including detector design, construction of process plants, commissioning efforts, electronics upgrades, data acquisition systems, and calibration techniques. The SNO+ collaboration is reusing the acrylic vessel, PMT array, and electronics of the SNO detector, having made a number of experimental upgrades and essential adaptations for use with the liquid scintillator. With low backgrounds and a low energy threshold, the SNO+ collaboration will also pursue a rich physics program beyond the search for $0νββ$ decay, including studies of geo- and reactor antineutrinos, supernova and solar neutrinos, and exotic physics such as the search for invisible nucleon decay. The SNO+ approach to the search for $0νββ$ decay is scalable: a future phase with high $^{130}$Te-loading is envisioned to probe an effective Majorana mass in the inverted mass ordering region. △ Less

Submitted 25 August, 2021; v1 submitted 23 April, 2021; originally announced April 2021.

Comments: 61 pages, 23 figures, 4 tables

Journal ref: The SNO+ collaboration, 2021 JINST 16 P08059

Development, characterisation, and deployment of the SNO+ liquid scintillator

Authors: SNO+ Collaboration, :, M. R. Anderson, S. Andringa, L. Anselmo, E. Arushanova, S. Asahi, M. Askins, D. J. Auty, A. R. Back, Z. Barnard, N. Barros, D. Bartlett, F. Barão, R. Bayes, E. W. Beier, A. Bialek, S. D. Biller, E. Blucher, R. Bonventre, M. Boulay, D. Braid, E. Caden, E. J. Callaghan, J. Caravaca , et al. (201 additional authors not shown)

Abstract: A liquid scintillator consisting of linear alkylbenzene as the solvent and 2,5-diphenyloxazole as the fluor was developed for the SNO+ experiment. This mixture was chosen as it is compatible with acrylic and has a competitive light yield to pre-existing liquid scintillators while conferring other advantages including longer attenuation lengths, superior safety characteristics, chemical simplicity,… ▽ More A liquid scintillator consisting of linear alkylbenzene as the solvent and 2,5-diphenyloxazole as the fluor was developed for the SNO+ experiment. This mixture was chosen as it is compatible with acrylic and has a competitive light yield to pre-existing liquid scintillators while conferring other advantages including longer attenuation lengths, superior safety characteristics, chemical simplicity, ease of handling, and logistical availability. Its properties have been extensively characterized and are presented here. This liquid scintillator is now used in several neutrino physics experiments in addition to SNO+. △ Less

Submitted 21 February, 2021; v1 submitted 25 November, 2020; originally announced November 2020.

Comments: 21 pages, 10 figures

Journal ref: JINST 16 (2021) P05009

Structured Light in Turbulence

Authors: Mitchell A. Cox, Nokwazi Mphuthi, Isaac Nape, Nikiwe P. Mashaba, Ling Cheng, Andrew Forbes

Abstract: Optical communication is an integral part of the modern economy, having all but replaced electronic communication systems. Future growth in bandwidth appears to be on the horizon using structured light, encoding information into the spatial modes of light, and transmitting them down fibre and free-space, the latter crucial for addressing last mile and digitally disconnected communities. Unfortunat… ▽ More Optical communication is an integral part of the modern economy, having all but replaced electronic communication systems. Future growth in bandwidth appears to be on the horizon using structured light, encoding information into the spatial modes of light, and transmitting them down fibre and free-space, the latter crucial for addressing last mile and digitally disconnected communities. Unfortunately, patterns of light are easily distorted, and in the case of free-space optical communication, turbulence is a significant barrier. Here we review recent progress in structured light in turbulence, first with a tutorial style summary of the core concepts, before highlighting the present state-of-the-art in the field. We support our review with new experimental studies that reveal which types of structured light are best in turbulence, the behaviour of vector versus scalar light in turbulence, the trade-off of diversity and multiplexing, and how turbulence models can be exploited for enhanced optical signal processing protocols. This comprehensive treatise will be invaluable to the large communities interested in free-space optical communication with spatial modes of light. △ Less

Submitted 29 May, 2020; originally announced May 2020.

Measurement of neutron-proton capture in the SNO+ water phase

Authors: The SNO+ Collaboration, :, M. R. Anderson, S. Andringa, M. Askins, D. J. Auty, N. Barros, F. Barão, R. Bayes, E. W. Beier, A. Bialek, S. D. Biller, E. Blucher, R. Bonventre, M. Boulay, E. Caden, E. J. Callaghan, J. Caravaca, D. Chauhan, M. Chen, O. Chkvorets, B. Cleveland, M. A. Cox, M. M. Depatie, J. Dittmer , et al. (108 additional authors not shown)

Abstract: The SNO+ experiment collected data as a low-threshold water Cherenkov detector from September 2017 to July 2019. Measurements of the 2.2-MeV $γ$ produced by neutron capture on hydrogen have been made using an Am-Be calibration source, for which a large fraction of emitted neutrons are produced simultaneously with a 4.4-MeV $γ$. Analysis of the delayed coincidence between the 4.4-MeV $γ$ and the 2.… ▽ More The SNO+ experiment collected data as a low-threshold water Cherenkov detector from September 2017 to July 2019. Measurements of the 2.2-MeV $γ$ produced by neutron capture on hydrogen have been made using an Am-Be calibration source, for which a large fraction of emitted neutrons are produced simultaneously with a 4.4-MeV $γ$. Analysis of the delayed coincidence between the 4.4-MeV $γ$ and the 2.2-MeV capture $γ$ revealed a neutron detection efficiency that is centered around 50% and varies at the level of 1% across the inner region of the detector, which to our knowledge is the highest efficiency achieved among pure water Cherenkov detectors. In addition, the neutron capture time constant was measured and converted to a thermal neutron-proton capture cross section of $336.3^{+1.2}_{-1.5}$ mb. △ Less

Submitted 13 July, 2020; v1 submitted 24 February, 2020; originally announced February 2020.

Journal ref: Phys. Rev. C 102, 014002 (2020)

Modelling the Memory of Turbulence-Induced Beam Wander

Authors: Mitchell A. Cox, Lucas Gailele, Ling Cheng, Andrew Forbes

Abstract: One of the major challenges for long range, high speed Free-Space Optical (FSO) communication is turbulence induced beam wander. Beam wander causes fluctuations in the received intensity as well as crosstalk in mode division multiplexed systems. Existing models for beam wander make use of probability distributions and long term averages and are not able to accurately model time-dependent intensity… ▽ More One of the major challenges for long range, high speed Free-Space Optical (FSO) communication is turbulence induced beam wander. Beam wander causes fluctuations in the received intensity as well as crosstalk in mode division multiplexed systems. Existing models for beam wander make use of probability distributions and long term averages and are not able to accurately model time-dependent intensity fluctuations such as deep fading, where the received intensity is too low to maintain reliable communication for an extended period of time. In this work we present an elegant new memory model which models the behaviour of beam wander induced intensity fluctuations with the unique capability to accurately simulate deep fading. This is invaluable for the development of optimised error correction coding and digital signal processing in order to improve the throughput and reliability of FSO systems. △ Less

Submitted 22 July, 2019; originally announced July 2019.

The Resilience of Hermite- and Laguerre-Gaussian Modes in Turbulence

Authors: Mitchell A. Cox, Luthando Maqondo, Ravin Kara, Giovanni Milione, Ling Cheng, Andrew Forbes

Abstract: Vast geographical distances in Africa are a leading cause for the so-called "digital divide" due to the high cost of installing fibre. Free-Space Optical (FSO) communications offer a convenient and higher bandwidth alternative to point-to-point radio microwave links, with the possibility of re-purposing existing infrastructure. Unfortunately, the range of high bandwidth FSO remains limited. While… ▽ More Vast geographical distances in Africa are a leading cause for the so-called "digital divide" due to the high cost of installing fibre. Free-Space Optical (FSO) communications offer a convenient and higher bandwidth alternative to point-to-point radio microwave links, with the possibility of re-purposing existing infrastructure. Unfortunately, the range of high bandwidth FSO remains limited. While there has been extensive research into an optimal mode set for FSO to achieve maximum data throughput by mode division multiplexing, there has been relatively little work investigating optical modes to improve the resilience of FSO links. Here we experimentally show that a carefully chosen subset of Hermite-Gaussian modes is more resilient to atmospheric turbulence than similar Laguerre-Gauss beams, theoretically resulting in a 167% theoretical increase of propagation distance at a mode dependent loss of 50%. △ Less

Submitted 22 January, 2019; originally announced January 2019.

A high-speed, wavelength invariant, single-pixel wavefront sensor with a digital micromirror device

Authors: Mitchell A. Cox, Ermes Toninelli, Ling Cheng, Miles Padgett, Andrew Forbes

Abstract: The wavefront measurement of a light beam is a complex task, which often requires a series of spatially resolved intensity measurements. For instance, a detector array may be used to measure the local phase gradient in the transverse plane of the unknown laser beam. In most cases the resolution of the reconstructed wavefront is determined by the resolution of the detector, which in the infrared ca… ▽ More The wavefront measurement of a light beam is a complex task, which often requires a series of spatially resolved intensity measurements. For instance, a detector array may be used to measure the local phase gradient in the transverse plane of the unknown laser beam. In most cases the resolution of the reconstructed wavefront is determined by the resolution of the detector, which in the infrared case is severely limited. Here we employ a Digital Micro-mirror Device (DMD) and a single-pixel detector (i.e. with no spatial resolution) to demonstrate the reconstruction of unknown wavefronts with excellent resolution. Our approach exploits modal decomposition of the incoming field by the DMD, enabling wavefront measurements at 4~kHz of both visible and infrared laser beams. △ Less

Submitted 22 January, 2019; originally announced January 2019.

Spatial Mode Diversity for Robust Free-Space Optical Communications

Authors: Mitchell A. Cox, Carmelo Rosales-Guzmán, Ling Cheng, Andrew Forbes

Abstract: Free-space communication links are severely affected by atmospheric turbulence, which causes degradation in the transmitted signal. One of the most common solutions to overcome this is to exploit diversity. In this approach, information is sent in parallel using two or more transmitters that are spatially separated, with each beam therefore experiencing different atmospheric turbulence, lowering t… ▽ More Free-space communication links are severely affected by atmospheric turbulence, which causes degradation in the transmitted signal. One of the most common solutions to overcome this is to exploit diversity. In this approach, information is sent in parallel using two or more transmitters that are spatially separated, with each beam therefore experiencing different atmospheric turbulence, lowering the probability of a receive error. In this work we propose and experimentally demonstrate a generalization of diversity based on spatial modes of light, which we have termed $\textit{modal diversity}$. We remove the need for a physical separation of the transmitters by exploiting the fact that spatial modes of light experience different perturbations, even when travelling along the same path. For this proof-of-principle we selected modes from the Hermite-Gaussian and Laguerre-Gaussian basis sets and demonstrate an improvement in Bit Error Rate by up to 54\%. We outline that modal diversity enables physically compact and longer distance free space optical links without increasing the total transmit power. △ Less

Submitted 15 November, 2017; originally announced November 2017.

Journal ref: Phys. Rev. Applied 10, 024020 (2018)

Creation and characterization of vector vortex modes for classical and quantum communication

Authors: Bienvenu Ndagano, Isaac Nape, Mitchell A. Cox, Carmelo Rosales-Guzman, Andrew Forbes

Abstract: Vector vortex beams are structured states of light that are non-separable in their polarisation and spatial mode, they are eigenmodes of free-space and many fibre systems, and have the capacity to be used as a modal basis for both classical and quantum communication. Here we outline recent progress in our understanding of these modes, from their creation to their characterization and detection. We… ▽ More Vector vortex beams are structured states of light that are non-separable in their polarisation and spatial mode, they are eigenmodes of free-space and many fibre systems, and have the capacity to be used as a modal basis for both classical and quantum communication. Here we outline recent progress in our understanding of these modes, from their creation to their characterization and detection. We then use these tools to study the propagation behaviour of such modes in free-space and optical fibre and show that modal cross-talk results in a decay of vector states into separable scalar modes, with a concomitant loss of information. We present a comparison between probabilistic and deterministic detection schemes showing that the former, while ubiquitous, negates the very benefit of increased dimensionality in quantum communication while reducing signal in classical communication links. This work provides a useful introduction to the field as well as presenting new findings and perspectives to advance it further. △ Less

Submitted 3 September, 2017; originally announced September 2017.

On the Resilience of Scalar and Vector Vortex Modes in Turbulence

Authors: Mitchell A. Cox, Carmelo Rosales-Guzmán, Martin P. J. Lavery, Daniel J. Versfeld, Andrew Forbes

Abstract: Free-space optical communication with spatial modes of light has become topical due to the possibility of dramatically increasing communication bandwidth via Mode Division Multiplexing (MDM). While both scalar and vector vortex modes have been used as transmission bases, it has been suggested that the latter is more robust in turbulence. Using orbital angular momentum as an example, we demonstrate… ▽ More Free-space optical communication with spatial modes of light has become topical due to the possibility of dramatically increasing communication bandwidth via Mode Division Multiplexing (MDM). While both scalar and vector vortex modes have been used as transmission bases, it has been suggested that the latter is more robust in turbulence. Using orbital angular momentum as an example, we demonstrate theoretically and experimentally that the crosstalk due to turbulence is the same in the scalar and vector basis sets of such modes. This work brings new insights about the behaviour of vector and scalar modes in turbulence, but more importantly it demonstrates that when considering optimal modes for MDM, the choice should not necessarily be based on their vectorial nature. △ Less

Submitted 14 June, 2016; originally announced June 2016.